Wind Power in Power Systems / Thomas Ackermann

Contributor(s): Ackermann, Thomas, 1966- [editor]
Language: English Publisher: Hoboken : John Wiley & Sons, c2012Description: 1 online resourceContent type: text Media type: computer Carrier type: online resourceISBN: 9781119941842; 9780470974162 ; 9781119942085; 9781119941842Subject(s): DDC classification: 621.312136 Online resources: Full text available at Wiley Online Library Click here to view
Contents:
TABLE OF CONTENTS Contributors xxxi Abbreviations xlvii Notation lvii 1 Introduction 1 Thomas Ackermann 2 Preface: Wind Power Myths Debunked 7 Michael Milligan, Kevin Porter, Edgar DeMeo, Paul Denholm, Hannele Holttinen, Brendan Kirby, Nicholas Miller, Andrew Mills, Mark O’Malley, Matthew Schuerger and Lennart Söder 2.1 Can Grid Operators Deal with the Variability of Wind Power? 7 2.2 Does Wind Power Require Back-up Generation? 8 2.3 Aren’t More CO2 Emissions Generated with Wind Power in Power Systems than Without, Due to Back-up Requirements? 9 2.4 Does Wind Power Require Storage? 9 2.5 Isn’t the Existing Flexibility Already Fully Utilized? 12 2.6 How Often Does the Wind Stop Blowing Everywhere at the Same Time? 13 2.7 To What Extent can Wind Power Production be Predicted? 14 2.8 Is it Expensive to Integrate Wind? 15 2.9 Doesn’t Wind Power Production Require New Transmission, and won’t that Make Wind Expensive? 16 2.10 Does Wind Power have Capacity Credit? 16 2.11 Don’t Wind Power Plants have Low Capacity Factors? 17 2.12 Is Wind Power Generation Cost-competitive with Coal or Nuclear? 17 2.13 Is there a Limit to How Much Wind Generation Capacity can be Accommodated by the Grid? 18 2.14 Summary 19 Acknowledgment 20 References 20 Part A Theoretical Background 3 Historical Development and Current Status of Wind Power 23 Thomas Ackermann 3.1 Introduction 23 3.2 Historical Background 24 3.3 Current Status of Wind Power Worldwide 27 3.4 Status of Wind Turbine Technology 41 3.5 Conclusions 44 Acknowledgments 44 References 44 4 Wind Power in Power Systems: An Introduction 47 Lennart Söder and Thomas Ackermann 4.1 Introduction 47 4.2 Power System History 47 4.3 Current Status of Wind Power in Power Systems 48 4.4 Network Integration Issues for Wind Power 49 4.5 Basic Electrical Engineering 50 4.6 Characteristics of Wind Power Generation 53 4.7 Basic Integration Issues Related to Wind Power 61 4.8 Conclusions 68 Appendix Mechanical Equivalent to Power System Operation with Wind Power 68 A.1 Introduction 69 A.2 Active Power Balance 69 A.3 Synchronous Machines 69 A.4 Asynchronous Machines 69 A.5 Power Electronic Interfaces 70 A.6 Frequency Control 70 A.7 Wind Power 70 A.8 Reactive Power Balance 70 A.9 Asynchronous Machines 71 A.10 Capacitors 71 A.11 Synchronous Machines 71 A.12 Power Electronic Interfaces 71 References 72 5 Generators and Power Electronics for Wind Turbines 73 Anca D. Hansen 5.1 Introduction 73 5.2 State-of-the-Art Technologies 73 5.3 Generator Concepts 90 5.4 Power Electronic Concepts 96 5.5 Power Electronic Solutions in Wind Farms 100 5.6 Conclusions 102 References 102 6 Power System Impacts of Wind Power 105 Hannele Holttinen and Ritva Hirvonen 6.1 Introduction 105 6.2 Operation of the Power System 106 6.3 Wind Power Production and the Power System 110 6.4 Effects of Wind Energy on the Power System 118 6.5 Conclusions 128 References 129 7 The Value of Wind Power 131 Lennart Söder 7.1 Introduction 131 7.2 The Value of a Power Plant 131 7.3 The Value of Wind Power 132 7.4 The Market Value of Wind Power 141 7.5 Conclusions 154 References 155 Part B Technical Regulations and Grid Code Validation 8 Power Quality Standards for Wind Turbines 159 John Olav Tande 8.1 Introduction 159 8.2 Power Quality Characteristics of Wind Turbines 160 8.3 Impact on Voltage Quality 164 8.4 Discussion 171 8.5 Conclusion 172 References 172 9 Measurement of Electrical Characteristics 175 Fritz Santjer 9.1 Introduction 175 9.2 Power Quality Measurement Procedures 176 9.3 Specification 178 9.4 Conclusions 192 References 193 10 Practical Experience with Power Quality and Wind Power 195 Åke Larsson 10.1 Introduction 195 10.2 Voltage Variations 195 10.3 Flicker 197 10.4 Harmonics 203 10.5 Transients 204 10.6 Frequency 206 10.7 Conclusions 207 References 208 11 Technical Regulations for the Interconnection of Wind Power Plants to the Power System 209 Julija Matevosyan, Sigrid M. Bolik and Thomas Ackermann 11.1 Introduction 209 11.2 Overview of Technical Regulations 209 11.3 Comparison of Technical Interconnection Regulations 218 11.4 New Interconnection Requirements at Wind Plant Level 233 11.5 Interconnection Practice 237 11.6 Conclusions 238 References 238 12 Performance Validation and Certification for Grid Codes 241 Martin Schellschmidt, Stephan Adloff and Markus Fischer 12.1 Introduction 241 12.2 History of the Certification Process 242 12.3 Steps of the Unit Certification Process 244 12.4 Steps in the Plant Certification Process 250 12.5 Experience with the Certification Process in Germany 252 12.6 Performance Validation in Canada and Spain 254 12.7 Conclusions 258 References 258 Part C Wind Power Plant and Transmission Issues 13 Electrical Design of a Wind Power Plant 263 Nicholas Miller, Reigh Walling and Richard Piwko 13.1 Introduction 263 13.2 Wind Plant Collection System Design Objectives 263 13.3 Wind Plant Performance Requirements 265 13.4 Economic Evaluation Factors 266 13.5 Collection System Electrical Design 270 13.6 Plant Control and Communication 281 References 292 14 Transmission Systems for Offshore Wind Power Plants and Operation Planning Strategies for Offshore Power Systems 293 Thomas Ackermann, Antje Orths and Krzysztof Rudion 14.1 Introduction 293 14.2 General Electrical Aspects 297 14.3 Transmission System to Shore 301 14.4 From a Cluster Approach to Offshore Transmission Grid: The Kriegers Flak Project 312 14.5 Offshore Grid Systems 312 14.6 New System Solutions for Offshore Wind Power Plants 320 14.7 Alternative Transmission Solutions 322 14.8 Conclusions 322 References 323 15 New Cable Systems for Offshore Wind Power Plants 329 Heinrich Brakelmann and Jan Brüggmann 15.1 Introduction 329 15.2 Technical Background 329 15.3 Power Transmission with Bipolar HVAC Cable Systems 331 15.4 Voltage Definitions and Transformer Groups 332 15.5 Submarine Cable Connections 334 15.6 Examples 337 15.7 HVAC Bipolar Land Cable Systems 340 15.8 Summary 343 References 343 16 New Control Concept for Offshore Wind Power Plants: Constant-Speed Turbines on a Grid with Variable Frequency 345 Eckehard Tröster 16.1 Introduction 345 16.2 Model 346 16.3 Power Limitation 347 16.4 The Park-Variable Concept 347 16.5 Calculating the Energy Yield 353 16.6 Results 354 16.7 Conclusion 358 References 359 Part D International Studies 17 Overview of Integration Studies – Methodologies and Results 363 Hannele Holttinen 17.1 Introduction 363 17.2 Wind Integration Study Set-up and Penetration Level of Wind Power 364 17.3 Methodologies for Wind Integration Studies 366 17.4 Results from Integration Studies 373 17.5 Recommendations 382 17.6 Conclusions and Future Work 383 References 384 18 Two Reference Studies on European Transmission for Wind Integration: TradeWind and EWIS 387 Frans Van Hulle 18.1 Introduction 387 18.2 TradeWind 390 18.3 The European Wind Integration Study EWIS 399 18.4 Future Transmission Needs in Europe from the Studies 408 18.5 Concluding Remarks 410 Acknowledgments 411 References 411 19 Transmission Planning for Wind Energy in the USA: Status and Prospects 413 J. Charles Smith, Dale Osborn, Richard Piwko, Robert Zavadil, Brian Parsons, Lynn Coles, David Hawkins, Warren Lasher and Bradley Nickell 19.1 Introduction 413 19.2 Transmission Planning for Energy Resources 414 19.3 Regional Planning Efforts: Status and Prospects 417 19.4 National Transmission Policy 431 19.5 Summary and Conclusions 435 Acknowledgments 436 References 436 20 Wind Power in Areas with Limited Transmission Capacity 439 Julija Matevosyan 20.1 Introduction 439 20.2 Transmission Limits 440 20.3 Transmission Capacity: Methods of Determination 445 20.4 Measures to Increase Transmission Capacity 447 20.5 Impact of Wind Generation on Available Transmission Capacity 450 20.6 Alternatives to Grid Reinforcement for the Integration of Wind Power 452 20.7 Conclusions 462 References 462 21 Wind Power and Storage 465 Aidan Tuohy and Mark O’Malley 21.1 Introduction 465 21.2 Storage Technologies 465 21.3 Storage for Wind Integration 468 21.4 Studies on Operation of Storage in Systems with High Wind Penetration 473 21.5 Discussion 483 21.6 Conclusions 485 References 485 22 Economic Aspects of Wind Power in Power Systems 489 Poul Erik Morthorst and Thomas Ackermann 22.1 Introduction 489 22.2 Costs for Network Connection and Network Upgrading 489 22.3 System Operation Costs in a Deregulated Market 496 22.4 Example of Nord Pool 500 22.5 Conclusions 515 References 516 Part E Power System Integration Experience 23 Wind Power in the Danish Power System 519 Antje G. Orths and Peter Børre Eriksen 23.1 Introduction 519 23.2 System Overview 521 23.3 Balancing Wind Power in Daily Operation 525 23.5 Conclusions and Lessons Learned 546 References 547 24 Wind Power in the German Network: Present Status and Future Challenges of Maintaining Quality of Supply 549 Matthias Luther and Wilhelm Winter 24.1 Overview 549 24.2 Wind Power Integration in Germany 550 24.3 Wind Power Flow Patterns and Reliable System Operation 553 24.4 Network Planning and Network Security Issues 555 24.6 Requirements to Ensure System Security 562 24.7 Summary: Wind Power in the German Network 566 Acknowledgments 567 References 567 25 Wind Integration in Portugal 569 Ana Estanqueiro 25.1 Introduction 569 25.2 The Portuguese Power System 570 25.3 Planning the Power System for High Wind Penetration 573 25.4 Power System Studies for a Secure Integration of Wind Generation 581 25.5 Operational Experience of Extreme Penetration of Wind Power in Portugal 585 25.6 Synthesis 593 References 593 26 Wind Power Integration Experience in Spain 595 Juan Ma. Rodríguez García, Olivia Alonso García and Miguel de la Torre Rodríguez 26.1 Introduction 595 26.2 Wind Capacity in Spain 597 26.3 Network Arrangements for Wind Power Development 599 26.4 Technical Requirements for Massive Wind Power Integration 602 26.5 Market Arrangements for Wind Power Integration 606 26.6 Operational Arrangements for Wind Power Integration 608 26.7 Future Challenges Associated with Wind Power Integration 617 26.8 Conclusions and Lessons Learned 620 References 621 27 Maximizing Renewable Generation on the Power System of Ireland and Northern Ireland 623 Jonathan O’Sullivan 27.1 Introduction 623 27.2 The Ireland and Northern Ireland Power System 624 27.3 Deregulation and the First European Energy Package 625 27.4 The Development of Renewable Policy 2020 Targets and Beyond 629 27.5 Operational Studies 632 27.6 Impact on the Operation of the Power System 636 27.7 Programme for a Secure, Sustainable Power System 638 27.8 Conclusion 646 References 646 28 Wind Power in the Power System in Texas 649 Henry Durrwachter and Warren Lasher 28.1 Overview 649 28.2 Wind Development in Texas 653 28.3 Wind Integration Issues 656 28.4 Market Impacts 662 28.5 Lessons Learned 663 28.6 Next Steps 664 References 666 29 Wind Power in the New Zealand Power System 667 Ray Brown 29.1 Introduction 667 29.2 Overview of the New Zealand Power System 668 29.3 Overview of Wind Power Installations in New Zealand 672 29.4 Technology Progression 673 29.5 Case Study: West Wind Wind Farm 674 29.6 Case Study: White Hill Wind Farm 680 29.7 Future Challenges and the Next Steps 685 29.8 Conclusion 687 References 688 30 Large-Scale Wind Power Integration into the Chinese Power System 689 Yongning Chi, Zhen Wang, Yan Li and Weisheng Wang 30.1 Introduction 689 30.2 Grid Integration Impact of High Wind Power Penetration 692 30.3 Solutions for the Grid Integration of Large-scale Wind Power 696 30.4 Grid Compliance Testing Technology 702 30.5 Smart Grid and Wind Power in China 704 30.6 Conclusions 705 References 706 31 Isolated Systems with Wind Power 707 E. Ian Baring-Gould and Per Lundsager 31.1 Introduction 707 31.2 Isolated Power Systems 708 31.3 Detailed Overview of Wind–Diesel Power Systems 713 31.4 Systems and Experience 721 31.5 Wind Power Impact on Power Quality 724 31.6 System Modelling Requirements 728 31.7 Issues During the Application of Wind–Diesel Systems 730 31.8 Conclusions and Recommendations 734 References 735 32 Wind Farms in Weak Power Networks in India 739 Poul Sørensen 32.1 Introduction 739 32.2 Network Characteristics 741 32.3 Wind Turbine Characteristics 745 32.4 Wind Turbine Influence on Grids 745 32.5 Grid Influence on Wind Turbines 748 32.6 Conclusions 751 References 751 33 Wind Power Prediction 753 Bernhard Ernst 33.1 Introduction 753 33.2 Forecast Horizons 754 33.3 Principle of Wind Power Prediction Tools 754 33.4 Day-Ahead Prediction 756 33.5 Ensemble Forecast Models/Combination of Forecast Models 757 33.6 Nowcasting and Ramp Forecasting 760 33.7 Forecast Error Evaluation 761 33.8 Lessons Learned during Recent Years 763 33.9 Future Challenges 765 References 765 Part F Dynamic Modelling of Wind Turbines For Power System Studies 34 Introduction to the Modelling of Wind Turbines 769 Hans Knudsen and Jørgen Nygård Nielsen 34.1 Introduction 769 34.2 Basic Considerations Regarding Modelling and Simulations 769 34.3 Overview of Aerodynamic Modelling 770 34.4 Basic Modelling Block Description of Wind Turbines 777 34.5 Per Unit Systems and Data for the Mechanical System 784 34.6 Different Types of Simulations and Requirements for Accuracy 788 34.7 Conclusions 796 References 796 35 A Generic Wind Power Plant Model 799 Abraham Ellis, Yuriy Kazachkov, Juan Sanchez-Gasca, Pouyan Pourbeik, Eduard Muljadi, Michael Behnke, Jens Fortmann and Slavomir Seman 35.1 Introduction 799 35.2 Power Flow Representation and Equivalencing 800 35.3 WECC Generic Dynamic Models 802 35.4 Generic Model Validation 812 35.5 Known Issues and Areas of Improvement 817 35.6 Outlook 819 References 819 36 Reduced-Order Modelling of Wind Turbines 821 Katherine Elkington, J.G. (Han) Slootweg, Mehrdad Ghandhari and Wil L. Kling 36.1 Introduction 821 36.2 Power System Dynamics Simulation 821 36.3 Current Wind Turbine Types 822 36.4 Modelling Assumptions 823 36.5 Model of a Constant-Speed Wind Turbine 824 36.6 Model of a Wind Turbine with a Doubly Fed Induction Generator 832 36.7 Model of a Wind Turbine with a Synchronous Generator 840 36.8 Model Response 845 36.9 Conclusions 845 References 845 37 High-Order Models of Doubly Fed Induction Generators 849 Eva Centeno López and Jonas Persson 37.1 Introduction 849 37.2 Advantages of Using a Doubly Fed Induction Generator 850 37.3 The Components of a Doubly Fed Induction Generator 850 37.4 Machine Equations 851 37.5 Voltage-Source Converter 859 37.6 Sequencer 861 37.7 Simulation of the Doubly Fed Induction Generator 861 37.8 Reducing the Order of the Doubly Fed Induction Generator 862 37.9 Conclusions 863 References 864 38 Full-Scale Verification of Dynamic Wind Turbine Models 865 Vladislav Akhmatov 38.1 Introduction 865 38.2 General Validation Procedure 866 38.3 Measured Parameters and Conversion 868 38.4 Validation Types 871 38.5 Further Validation Specifications 887 38.6 Conclusions 888 References 889 39 Impacts of Wind Power on Power System Stability 891 Eknath Vittal, Andrew Keane, J.G. Slootweg and Wil Kling 39.1 Power System Stability and Security 891 39.2 Rotor Angle Stability 892 39.3 Voltage Stability 897 39.4 Frequency Stability 906 39.5 Dynamic Behaviour of Wind Power Plants 909 39.6 Conclusions 911 References 911 40 Modelling of Large Wind Power Plants 913 Vladislav Akhmatov and Björn Andresen 40.1 Introduction 913 40.2 Detailed Modelling and Short-Term Stability 915 40.3 Aggregated Modelling and Fault Ride-Through 921 40.4 Wind Power Plant Controllers 926 40.5 Conclusions 931 References 932 Part G Future Issues 41 Benefits of Active Management of Distribution Systems 937 Goran Strbac, Predrag Djapić, Thomas Bopp and Nick Jenkins 41.1 Background 937 41.2 Active Management 938 41.3 Quantifying the Benefits of Active Management 941 41.4 Conclusions 949 References 950 42 Wind Power and the Smart Grid 951 J.G. Slootweg and Thomas Ackermann 42.1 Introduction 951 42.2 (Trying to) Define Smart Grids 952 42.3 Why ‘Smarten’ the Grid? And Why Now (or Why Not)? 955 42.4 Goals and Concepts 957 42.5 Wind Power and Smart Grids 962 42.6 Practical Application: The Danish Cell Controller Pilot Project 966 42.7 Conclusions 971 Acknowledgments 972 References 972 43 Reactive Power Capability and Voltage Control with Wind Turbines 975 Volker Diedrichs, Alfred Beekmann and Marcel Kruse 43.1 Relevance and Design Paradigm 975 43.2 Reactive Power Capability of a Wind Turbine 979 43.3 Model-Based Design of Voltage Control Systems for Wind Power Plants 982 43.4 Performance Demonstration, Model Validation and Contingency Tests 988 43.5 Voltage Control of Medium-Voltage Network 989 Reference 997 44 Hydrogen as a Means of Transporting and Balancing Wind Power Production 999 Robert Steinberger-Wilckens 44.1 Introduction 999 44.2 A Brief Introduction to Hydrogen 1000 44.3 Technology and Efficiency 1001 44.4 Reconversion to Electricity: Fuel Cells 1004 44.5 The Potential of Hydrogen in Wind Energy Storage 1006 44.6 Hydrogen Applications for Wind Energy Storage 1008 44.7 A Blueprint for a Hydrogen Distribution System 1012 44.8 Conclusions 1016 Acknowledgments 1016 References 1017 Index 1019
Summary: DESCRIPTION The second edition of the highly acclaimed Wind Power in Power Systems has been thoroughly revised and expanded to reflect the latest challenges associated with increasing wind power penetration levels. Since its first release, practical experiences with high wind power penetration levels have significantly increased. This book presents an overview of the lessons learned in integrating wind power into power systems and provides an outlook of the relevant issues and solutions to allow even higher wind power penetration levels. This includes the development of standard wind turbine simulation models. This extensive update has 23 brand new chapters in cutting-edge areas including offshore wind farms and storage options, performance validation and certification for grid codes, and the provision of reactive power and voltage control from wind power plants. Key features: Offers an international perspective on integrating a high penetration of wind power into the power system, from basic network interconnection to industry deregulation; Outlines the methodology and results of European and North American large-scale grid integration studies; Extensive practical experience from wind power and power system experts and transmission systems operators in Germany, Denmark, Spain, UK, Ireland, USA, China and New Zealand; Presents various wind turbine designs from the electrical perspective and models for their simulation, and discusses industry standards and world-wide grid codes, along with power quality issues; Considers concepts to increase penetration of wind power in power systems, from wind turbine, power plant and power system redesign to smart grid and storage solutions. Carefully edited for a highly coherent structure, this work remains an essential reference for power system engineers, transmission and distribution network operator and planner, wind turbine designers, wind project developers and wind energy consultants dealing with the integration of wind power into the distribution or transmission network. Up-to-date and comprehensive, it is also useful for graduate students, researchers, regulation authorities, and policy makers who work in the area of wind power and need to understand the relevant power system integration issues.
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ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Dr Thomas Ackermann, Energynautics GmbH, Langen, Germany
Thomas Ackermann is CEO of wind and renewable energies consulting company, Energynautics, which specialises in network integration and power markets. He gained his PhDat KTH (Royal University of Technology), Stockholm, Sweden, where he continues to do wind power freelance lecturing at the Department of Electrical Engineering. He is also involved in education at the University of Zagreb, Croatia, via the EU TEMPUS program. Dr Ackermann's main interests are wind power, distributed power generation, and the impact of market regulations on the development of distributed generation in deregulated markets. Thomas Ackermann is an Editor of Wind Energy Journal (Wiley).

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contributors xxxi

Abbreviations xlvii

Notation lvii

1 Introduction 1
Thomas Ackermann

2 Preface: Wind Power Myths Debunked 7
Michael Milligan, Kevin Porter, Edgar DeMeo, Paul Denholm, Hannele Holttinen, Brendan Kirby, Nicholas Miller, Andrew Mills, Mark O’Malley, Matthew Schuerger and Lennart Söder

2.1 Can Grid Operators Deal with the Variability of Wind Power? 7

2.2 Does Wind Power Require Back-up Generation? 8

2.3 Aren’t More CO2 Emissions Generated with Wind Power in Power Systems than Without, Due to Back-up Requirements? 9

2.4 Does Wind Power Require Storage? 9

2.5 Isn’t the Existing Flexibility Already Fully Utilized? 12

2.6 How Often Does the Wind Stop Blowing Everywhere at the Same Time? 13

2.7 To What Extent can Wind Power Production be Predicted? 14

2.8 Is it Expensive to Integrate Wind? 15

2.9 Doesn’t Wind Power Production Require New Transmission, and won’t that Make Wind Expensive? 16

2.10 Does Wind Power have Capacity Credit? 16

2.11 Don’t Wind Power Plants have Low Capacity Factors? 17

2.12 Is Wind Power Generation Cost-competitive with Coal or Nuclear? 17

2.13 Is there a Limit to How Much Wind Generation Capacity can be Accommodated by the Grid? 18

2.14 Summary 19

Acknowledgment 20

References 20

Part A Theoretical Background

3 Historical Development and Current Status of Wind Power 23
Thomas Ackermann

3.1 Introduction 23

3.2 Historical Background 24

3.3 Current Status of Wind Power Worldwide 27

3.4 Status of Wind Turbine Technology 41

3.5 Conclusions 44

Acknowledgments 44

References 44

4 Wind Power in Power Systems: An Introduction 47
Lennart Söder and Thomas Ackermann

4.1 Introduction 47

4.2 Power System History 47

4.3 Current Status of Wind Power in Power Systems 48

4.4 Network Integration Issues for Wind Power 49

4.5 Basic Electrical Engineering 50

4.6 Characteristics of Wind Power Generation 53

4.7 Basic Integration Issues Related to Wind Power 61

4.8 Conclusions 68

Appendix Mechanical Equivalent to Power System Operation with Wind Power 68

A.1 Introduction 69

A.2 Active Power Balance 69

A.3 Synchronous Machines 69

A.4 Asynchronous Machines 69

A.5 Power Electronic Interfaces 70

A.6 Frequency Control 70

A.7 Wind Power 70

A.8 Reactive Power Balance 70

A.9 Asynchronous Machines 71

A.10 Capacitors 71

A.11 Synchronous Machines 71

A.12 Power Electronic Interfaces 71

References 72

5 Generators and Power Electronics for Wind Turbines 73
Anca D. Hansen

5.1 Introduction 73

5.2 State-of-the-Art Technologies 73

5.3 Generator Concepts 90

5.4 Power Electronic Concepts 96

5.5 Power Electronic Solutions in Wind Farms 100

5.6 Conclusions 102

References 102

6 Power System Impacts of Wind Power 105
Hannele Holttinen and Ritva Hirvonen

6.1 Introduction 105

6.2 Operation of the Power System 106

6.3 Wind Power Production and the Power System 110

6.4 Effects of Wind Energy on the Power System 118

6.5 Conclusions 128

References 129

7 The Value of Wind Power 131
Lennart Söder

7.1 Introduction 131

7.2 The Value of a Power Plant 131

7.3 The Value of Wind Power 132

7.4 The Market Value of Wind Power 141

7.5 Conclusions 154

References 155

Part B Technical Regulations and Grid Code Validation

8 Power Quality Standards for Wind Turbines 159
John Olav Tande

8.1 Introduction 159

8.2 Power Quality Characteristics of Wind Turbines 160

8.3 Impact on Voltage Quality 164

8.4 Discussion 171

8.5 Conclusion 172

References 172

9 Measurement of Electrical Characteristics 175
Fritz Santjer

9.1 Introduction 175

9.2 Power Quality Measurement Procedures 176

9.3 Specification 178

9.4 Conclusions 192

References 193

10 Practical Experience with Power Quality and Wind Power 195
Åke Larsson

10.1 Introduction 195

10.2 Voltage Variations 195

10.3 Flicker 197

10.4 Harmonics 203

10.5 Transients 204

10.6 Frequency 206

10.7 Conclusions 207

References 208

11 Technical Regulations for the Interconnection of Wind Power Plants to the Power System 209
Julija Matevosyan, Sigrid M. Bolik and Thomas Ackermann

11.1 Introduction 209

11.2 Overview of Technical Regulations 209

11.3 Comparison of Technical Interconnection Regulations 218

11.4 New Interconnection Requirements at Wind Plant Level 233

11.5 Interconnection Practice 237

11.6 Conclusions 238

References 238

12 Performance Validation and Certification for Grid Codes 241
Martin Schellschmidt, Stephan Adloff and Markus Fischer

12.1 Introduction 241

12.2 History of the Certification Process 242

12.3 Steps of the Unit Certification Process 244

12.4 Steps in the Plant Certification Process 250

12.5 Experience with the Certification Process in Germany 252

12.6 Performance Validation in Canada and Spain 254

12.7 Conclusions 258

References 258

Part C Wind Power Plant and Transmission Issues

13 Electrical Design of a Wind Power Plant 263
Nicholas Miller, Reigh Walling and Richard Piwko

13.1 Introduction 263

13.2 Wind Plant Collection System Design Objectives 263

13.3 Wind Plant Performance Requirements 265

13.4 Economic Evaluation Factors 266

13.5 Collection System Electrical Design 270

13.6 Plant Control and Communication 281

References 292

14 Transmission Systems for Offshore Wind Power Plants and Operation Planning Strategies for Offshore Power Systems 293
Thomas Ackermann, Antje Orths and Krzysztof Rudion

14.1 Introduction 293

14.2 General Electrical Aspects 297

14.3 Transmission System to Shore 301

14.4 From a Cluster Approach to Offshore Transmission Grid: The Kriegers Flak Project 312

14.5 Offshore Grid Systems 312

14.6 New System Solutions for Offshore Wind Power Plants 320

14.7 Alternative Transmission Solutions 322

14.8 Conclusions 322

References 323

15 New Cable Systems for Offshore Wind Power Plants 329
Heinrich Brakelmann and Jan Brüggmann

15.1 Introduction 329

15.2 Technical Background 329

15.3 Power Transmission with Bipolar HVAC Cable Systems 331

15.4 Voltage Definitions and Transformer Groups 332

15.5 Submarine Cable Connections 334

15.6 Examples 337

15.7 HVAC Bipolar Land Cable Systems 340

15.8 Summary 343

References 343

16 New Control Concept for Offshore Wind Power Plants: Constant-Speed Turbines on a Grid with Variable Frequency 345
Eckehard Tröster

16.1 Introduction 345

16.2 Model 346

16.3 Power Limitation 347

16.4 The Park-Variable Concept 347

16.5 Calculating the Energy Yield 353

16.6 Results 354

16.7 Conclusion 358

References 359

Part D International Studies

17 Overview of Integration Studies – Methodologies and Results 363
Hannele Holttinen

17.1 Introduction 363

17.2 Wind Integration Study Set-up and Penetration Level of Wind Power 364

17.3 Methodologies for Wind Integration Studies 366

17.4 Results from Integration Studies 373

17.5 Recommendations 382

17.6 Conclusions and Future Work 383

References 384

18 Two Reference Studies on European Transmission for Wind Integration: TradeWind and EWIS 387
Frans Van Hulle

18.1 Introduction 387

18.2 TradeWind 390

18.3 The European Wind Integration Study EWIS 399

18.4 Future Transmission Needs in Europe from the Studies 408

18.5 Concluding Remarks 410

Acknowledgments 411

References 411

19 Transmission Planning for Wind Energy in the USA: Status and Prospects 413
J. Charles Smith, Dale Osborn, Richard Piwko, Robert Zavadil, Brian Parsons, Lynn Coles, David Hawkins, Warren Lasher and Bradley Nickell

19.1 Introduction 413

19.2 Transmission Planning for Energy Resources 414

19.3 Regional Planning Efforts: Status and Prospects 417

19.4 National Transmission Policy 431

19.5 Summary and Conclusions 435

Acknowledgments 436

References 436

20 Wind Power in Areas with Limited Transmission Capacity 439
Julija Matevosyan

20.1 Introduction 439

20.2 Transmission Limits 440

20.3 Transmission Capacity: Methods of Determination 445

20.4 Measures to Increase Transmission Capacity 447

20.5 Impact of Wind Generation on Available Transmission Capacity 450

20.6 Alternatives to Grid Reinforcement for the Integration of Wind Power 452

20.7 Conclusions 462

References 462

21 Wind Power and Storage 465
Aidan Tuohy and Mark O’Malley

21.1 Introduction 465

21.2 Storage Technologies 465

21.3 Storage for Wind Integration 468

21.4 Studies on Operation of Storage in Systems with High Wind Penetration 473

21.5 Discussion 483

21.6 Conclusions 485

References 485

22 Economic Aspects of Wind Power in Power Systems 489
Poul Erik Morthorst and Thomas Ackermann

22.1 Introduction 489

22.2 Costs for Network Connection and Network Upgrading 489

22.3 System Operation Costs in a Deregulated Market 496

22.4 Example of Nord Pool 500

22.5 Conclusions 515

References 516

Part E Power System Integration Experience

23 Wind Power in the Danish Power System 519
Antje G. Orths and Peter Børre Eriksen

23.1 Introduction 519

23.2 System Overview 521

23.3 Balancing Wind Power in Daily Operation 525

23.5 Conclusions and Lessons Learned 546

References 547

24 Wind Power in the German Network: Present Status and Future Challenges of Maintaining Quality of Supply 549
Matthias Luther and Wilhelm Winter

24.1 Overview 549

24.2 Wind Power Integration in Germany 550

24.3 Wind Power Flow Patterns and Reliable System Operation 553

24.4 Network Planning and Network Security Issues 555

24.6 Requirements to Ensure System Security 562

24.7 Summary: Wind Power in the German Network 566

Acknowledgments 567

References 567

25 Wind Integration in Portugal 569
Ana Estanqueiro

25.1 Introduction 569

25.2 The Portuguese Power System 570

25.3 Planning the Power System for High Wind Penetration 573

25.4 Power System Studies for a Secure Integration of Wind Generation 581

25.5 Operational Experience of Extreme Penetration of Wind Power in Portugal 585

25.6 Synthesis 593

References 593

26 Wind Power Integration Experience in Spain 595
Juan Ma. Rodríguez García, Olivia Alonso García and Miguel de la Torre Rodríguez

26.1 Introduction 595

26.2 Wind Capacity in Spain 597

26.3 Network Arrangements for Wind Power Development 599

26.4 Technical Requirements for Massive Wind Power Integration 602

26.5 Market Arrangements for Wind Power Integration 606

26.6 Operational Arrangements for Wind Power Integration 608

26.7 Future Challenges Associated with Wind Power Integration 617

26.8 Conclusions and Lessons Learned 620

References 621

27 Maximizing Renewable Generation on the Power System of Ireland and Northern Ireland 623
Jonathan O’Sullivan

27.1 Introduction 623

27.2 The Ireland and Northern Ireland Power System 624

27.3 Deregulation and the First European Energy Package 625

27.4 The Development of Renewable Policy 2020 Targets and Beyond 629

27.5 Operational Studies 632

27.6 Impact on the Operation of the Power System 636

27.7 Programme for a Secure, Sustainable Power System 638

27.8 Conclusion 646

References 646

28 Wind Power in the Power System in Texas 649
Henry Durrwachter and Warren Lasher

28.1 Overview 649

28.2 Wind Development in Texas 653

28.3 Wind Integration Issues 656

28.4 Market Impacts 662

28.5 Lessons Learned 663

28.6 Next Steps 664

References 666

29 Wind Power in the New Zealand Power System 667
Ray Brown

29.1 Introduction 667

29.2 Overview of the New Zealand Power System 668

29.3 Overview of Wind Power Installations in New Zealand 672

29.4 Technology Progression 673

29.5 Case Study: West Wind Wind Farm 674

29.6 Case Study: White Hill Wind Farm 680

29.7 Future Challenges and the Next Steps 685

29.8 Conclusion 687

References 688

30 Large-Scale Wind Power Integration into the Chinese Power System 689
Yongning Chi, Zhen Wang, Yan Li and Weisheng Wang

30.1 Introduction 689

30.2 Grid Integration Impact of High Wind Power Penetration 692

30.3 Solutions for the Grid Integration of Large-scale Wind Power 696

30.4 Grid Compliance Testing Technology 702

30.5 Smart Grid and Wind Power in China 704

30.6 Conclusions 705

References 706

31 Isolated Systems with Wind Power 707
E. Ian Baring-Gould and Per Lundsager

31.1 Introduction 707

31.2 Isolated Power Systems 708

31.3 Detailed Overview of Wind–Diesel Power Systems 713

31.4 Systems and Experience 721

31.5 Wind Power Impact on Power Quality 724

31.6 System Modelling Requirements 728

31.7 Issues During the Application of Wind–Diesel Systems 730

31.8 Conclusions and Recommendations 734

References 735

32 Wind Farms in Weak Power Networks in India 739
Poul Sørensen

32.1 Introduction 739

32.2 Network Characteristics 741

32.3 Wind Turbine Characteristics 745

32.4 Wind Turbine Influence on Grids 745

32.5 Grid Influence on Wind Turbines 748

32.6 Conclusions 751

References 751

33 Wind Power Prediction 753
Bernhard Ernst

33.1 Introduction 753

33.2 Forecast Horizons 754

33.3 Principle of Wind Power Prediction Tools 754

33.4 Day-Ahead Prediction 756

33.5 Ensemble Forecast Models/Combination of Forecast Models 757

33.6 Nowcasting and Ramp Forecasting 760

33.7 Forecast Error Evaluation 761

33.8 Lessons Learned during Recent Years 763

33.9 Future Challenges 765

References 765

Part F Dynamic Modelling of Wind Turbines For Power System Studies

34 Introduction to the Modelling of Wind Turbines 769
Hans Knudsen and Jørgen Nygård Nielsen

34.1 Introduction 769

34.2 Basic Considerations Regarding Modelling and Simulations 769

34.3 Overview of Aerodynamic Modelling 770

34.4 Basic Modelling Block Description of Wind Turbines 777

34.5 Per Unit Systems and Data for the Mechanical System 784

34.6 Different Types of Simulations and Requirements for Accuracy 788

34.7 Conclusions 796

References 796

35 A Generic Wind Power Plant Model 799
Abraham Ellis, Yuriy Kazachkov, Juan Sanchez-Gasca, Pouyan Pourbeik, Eduard Muljadi, Michael Behnke, Jens Fortmann and Slavomir Seman

35.1 Introduction 799

35.2 Power Flow Representation and Equivalencing 800

35.3 WECC Generic Dynamic Models 802

35.4 Generic Model Validation 812

35.5 Known Issues and Areas of Improvement 817

35.6 Outlook 819

References 819

36 Reduced-Order Modelling of Wind Turbines 821
Katherine Elkington, J.G. (Han) Slootweg, Mehrdad Ghandhari and Wil L. Kling

36.1 Introduction 821

36.2 Power System Dynamics Simulation 821

36.3 Current Wind Turbine Types 822

36.4 Modelling Assumptions 823

36.5 Model of a Constant-Speed Wind Turbine 824

36.6 Model of a Wind Turbine with a Doubly Fed Induction Generator 832

36.7 Model of a Wind Turbine with a Synchronous Generator 840

36.8 Model Response 845

36.9 Conclusions 845

References 845

37 High-Order Models of Doubly Fed Induction Generators 849
Eva Centeno López and Jonas Persson

37.1 Introduction 849

37.2 Advantages of Using a Doubly Fed Induction Generator 850

37.3 The Components of a Doubly Fed Induction Generator 850

37.4 Machine Equations 851

37.5 Voltage-Source Converter 859

37.6 Sequencer 861

37.7 Simulation of the Doubly Fed Induction Generator 861

37.8 Reducing the Order of the Doubly Fed Induction Generator 862

37.9 Conclusions 863

References 864

38 Full-Scale Verification of Dynamic Wind Turbine Models 865
Vladislav Akhmatov

38.1 Introduction 865

38.2 General Validation Procedure 866

38.3 Measured Parameters and Conversion 868

38.4 Validation Types 871

38.5 Further Validation Specifications 887

38.6 Conclusions 888

References 889

39 Impacts of Wind Power on Power System Stability 891
Eknath Vittal, Andrew Keane, J.G. Slootweg and Wil Kling

39.1 Power System Stability and Security 891

39.2 Rotor Angle Stability 892

39.3 Voltage Stability 897

39.4 Frequency Stability 906

39.5 Dynamic Behaviour of Wind Power Plants 909

39.6 Conclusions 911

References 911

40 Modelling of Large Wind Power Plants 913
Vladislav Akhmatov and Björn Andresen

40.1 Introduction 913

40.2 Detailed Modelling and Short-Term Stability 915

40.3 Aggregated Modelling and Fault Ride-Through 921

40.4 Wind Power Plant Controllers 926

40.5 Conclusions 931

References 932

Part G Future Issues

41 Benefits of Active Management of Distribution Systems 937
Goran Strbac, Predrag Djapić, Thomas Bopp and Nick Jenkins

41.1 Background 937

41.2 Active Management 938

41.3 Quantifying the Benefits of Active Management 941

41.4 Conclusions 949

References 950

42 Wind Power and the Smart Grid 951
J.G. Slootweg and Thomas Ackermann

42.1 Introduction 951

42.2 (Trying to) Define Smart Grids 952

42.3 Why ‘Smarten’ the Grid? And Why Now (or Why Not)? 955

42.4 Goals and Concepts 957

42.5 Wind Power and Smart Grids 962

42.6 Practical Application: The Danish Cell Controller Pilot Project 966

42.7 Conclusions 971

Acknowledgments 972

References 972

43 Reactive Power Capability and Voltage Control with Wind Turbines 975
Volker Diedrichs, Alfred Beekmann and Marcel Kruse

43.1 Relevance and Design Paradigm 975

43.2 Reactive Power Capability of a Wind Turbine 979

43.3 Model-Based Design of Voltage Control Systems for Wind Power Plants 982

43.4 Performance Demonstration, Model Validation and Contingency Tests 988

43.5 Voltage Control of Medium-Voltage Network 989

Reference 997

44 Hydrogen as a Means of Transporting and Balancing Wind Power Production 999
Robert Steinberger-Wilckens

44.1 Introduction 999

44.2 A Brief Introduction to Hydrogen 1000

44.3 Technology and Efficiency 1001

44.4 Reconversion to Electricity: Fuel Cells 1004

44.5 The Potential of Hydrogen in Wind Energy Storage 1006

44.6 Hydrogen Applications for Wind Energy Storage 1008

44.7 A Blueprint for a Hydrogen Distribution System 1012

44.8 Conclusions 1016

Acknowledgments 1016

References 1017

Index 1019

DESCRIPTION

The second edition of the highly acclaimed Wind Power in Power Systems has been thoroughly revised and expanded to reflect the latest challenges associated with increasing wind power penetration levels. Since its first release, practical experiences with high wind power penetration levels have significantly increased. This book presents an overview of the lessons learned in integrating wind power into power systems and provides an outlook of the relevant issues and solutions to allow even higher wind power penetration levels. This includes the development of standard wind turbine simulation models. This extensive update has 23 brand new chapters in cutting-edge areas including offshore wind farms and storage options, performance validation and certification for grid codes, and the provision of reactive power and voltage control from wind power plants.

Key features:

Offers an international perspective on integrating a high penetration of wind power into the power system, from basic network interconnection to industry deregulation;
Outlines the methodology and results of European and North American large-scale grid integration studies;
Extensive practical experience from wind power and power system experts and transmission systems operators in Germany, Denmark, Spain, UK, Ireland, USA, China and New Zealand;
Presents various wind turbine designs from the electrical perspective and models for their simulation, and discusses industry standards and world-wide grid codes, along with power quality issues;
Considers concepts to increase penetration of wind power in power systems, from wind turbine, power plant and power system redesign to smart grid and storage solutions.
Carefully edited for a highly coherent structure, this work remains an essential reference for power system engineers, transmission and distribution network operator and planner, wind turbine designers, wind project developers and wind energy consultants dealing with the integration of wind power into the distribution or transmission network. Up-to-date and comprehensive, it is also useful for graduate students, researchers, regulation authorities, and policy makers who work in the area of wind power and need to understand the relevant power system integration issues.

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