TY - BOOK AU - Airasian,Peter W. AU - Russell,Michael K. TI - Classroom assessment: concepts and applications SN - 9780073403762 (alk. paper) AV - LB3051 .A5627 2008 U1 - 371.260973 22 PY - 2008/// CY - Boston PB - McGraw-Hill Higher Education KW - Educational tests and measurements KW - United States KW - Academic achievement KW - Testing KW - Education KW - Evaluation N1 - Peter W. Airasian is Professor of Education at Boston College, where he is Chair of the Educational Research, Measurement, and Evaluation Program. His main teaching responsibilities are instructing pre- and in-service teachers in classroom assessment strategies. He received his Ph.D. from the University of Chicago, with a concentration in testing, evaluation, and assessment. He is a former high school chemistry and biology teacher. He has authored numerous books on assessment, including of Minimal Competency Testing (1979), School Effectiveness: A Reassessment of the Evidence (1980), The Effects of Standardized Testing (1982), Teacher Evaluation Toolkit (1997), Assessment in the Classroom (1997 and 2000), and Classroom Assessment (1991, 1994, 1997, and 2001)). He is a past Chair of the American Educational Research Association’s Special Interest Group on Classroom Assessment. Currently, he is continuing his study of the role of assessments in classrooms and examining issues related to the evaluation of teachers; Includes bibliographical references and indexes; PREFACE xxi CHAPTER 1 THE BREADTH OF CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT 1 PURPOSE OF CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT 4 Establishing Classroom Equilibrium 5 Planning and Conducting Instruction 5 Placing Pupils 6 Providing Feedback and Incentives 6 Diagnosing Pupil Problems and Disabilities 6 Judging and Grading Academic Learning and Progress 7 TYPES OF ASSESSMENT 7 Chapter Case Study 10 ASSESSMENT, TESTING, MEASUREMENT, AND EVALUATION 9 THREE GENERAL WAYS TO COLLECT DATA: PAPER-AND-PENCIL, OBSERVATION, AND ORAL QUESTIONING 10 Paper-and-Pencil Techniques 11 Observation Techniques 11 Oral Questioning Techniques 12 STANDARDIZED AND NONSTANDARDIZED ASSESSMENTS 13 Standardized Assessments 13 Nonstandardized Assessments 13 Technology Assessment =ERIC: Practical Assessment, Research, and Evaluation= 14 Administration in Groups 14 GOOD ASSESSMENTS: VALID AND RELIABLE 14 Validity 16 Key Assessment Tools 1.1 =Key Aspects of Assessment Validity= 17 Reliability 17 Key Assessment Tools 1.2 =Key Aspects of Assessment Reliability= 18 ETHICAL ISSUES AND RESPONSIBILITIES 20 Ethic Issues and Assessment 20 Fairness in Accommodating Special Needs 22 Chapter Summary 23 OLC Chapter Review 23 Questions for Discussion 24 Activities 24 Review Questions 24 References 25 CHAPTER 2 LEARNING ABOUT PUPILS: EARLY ASSESSMENT 26 GATHERING INFORMATION ABOUT PUPILS 28 Technology and Assessment =What Typical Young Readers Really Are Like= 30 SOURCES OF LEARNING ABOUT PUPILS 32 FORMING PUPIL DESCRIPTIONS 34 CONCERNS ABOUT ETHICS AND ACCURACY 36 The General Problem 37 The Problem in Terms of Validity and Reliability 38 Chapter Case Study 39 IMPROVING EARLY ASSESSMENTS 41 Key Assessment Tools 2.1 =Threats to the Validity and Reliability of Early Assessments= 42 CLUES TO LANGUAGE DISABILITIES 46 Chapter Summary 48 OLC Chapter Review 48 CONTENTS _ x Questions for Discussion 49 Activities 49 Review Questions 49 References 50 CHAPTER 3 LESSON PLANNING AND ASSESSMENT OBJECTIVES 51 THE INSTRUCTIONAL PROCESS 53 INSTRUCTIONAL PLANNING 55 Pupil Characteristics 57 Teacher Characteristics 58 Instructional Resources 58 THREE LEVELS OF TEACHING OBJECTIVES 60 THREE DOMAINS OF OBJECTIVES 62 The Cognitive Domain 63 The Affective Domain 65 The Psychomotor Domain 66 STATING AND CONSTRUCTING OBJECTIVES 67 Essential Elements of the Statement 67 Forming Complete Statements 68 Chapter Case Study 70 Some Good Examples of Objectives 71 Key Assessment Tools 3.1 =Criteria for Successful Objectives= 72 Questions Often Asked about Educational Objectives 72 LESSON PLANS 73 Key Assessment Tools 3.2 =Components of a Lesson Plan= 74 Many Instructional Approaches 74 Writing a Plan 75 Technology and Assessment 75 IMPROVING THE TIE BETWEEN PLANNING AND ASSESSMENT 76 Key Assessment Tools 3.3 =Guidelines in Planning Instruction= 78 PLANNING, DISABILITIES, AND ACCOMMODATIONS 78 Legal Issues 79 Disabilities and Accommodations 83 Key Assessment Tools 3.4 =Required Contents of an Individual Education Plan= 84 Chapter Summary 85 OLC Chapter Review 86 Questions for Discussion 87 Activities 87 Review Questions 87 References 88 CHAPTER 4 OTHER SOURCES OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND ASSESSMENTS 89 TEXTBOOK OBJECTIVES AND ASSESSMENTS 89 Evaluating Textbook Objectives and Lesson Plans 91 Key Assessment Tools 4.1 =Basic Factors to Consider When Examining Textbook Objectives and Lesson Plans= 93 Key Assessment Tools 4.2 =Key Points to Consider in Judging Textbook Tests= 94 Evaluating Textbook Tests 94 STATEWIDE ASSESSMENTS 95 The Rising Stakes 95 The Variety of Statewide Standards 96 Construction of Statewide Assessments 100 Scoring Statewide Assessments 104 Examples of Comprehensive Statewide Assessment 106 IMPLICATIONS OF HIGH-STAKES TESTING 108 The Impact on Teachers and Teaching 109 Technology Assessment =Computer-based Practice for State Testing= 112 Reconsidering High-Stakes Testing 114 Chapter Case Study 114 Motivating Pupils and Teachers for Statewide Testing 115 Staying Focused on Quality in the Classroom 116 NO CHILD LEFT BEHIND 116 Expectations and Outcomes of NCLB 117 Current Status of NCLB 118 Federal Accommodations for Disabilities 118 Controversial Issues for NCLB 118 Chapter Summary 119 OLC Chapter Review 119 Questions for Discussion 120 Activities 120 Review Questions 121 References 121 CHAPTER 5 ASSESSMENT DURING INSTRUCTION 123 ASSESSMENT TASKS DURING INSTRUCTION 125 Teachersp Thinking during Instruction 127 Assessing Abnormal and Normal Behavior 127 The Need for Practical Knowledge 128 Assessment Indicators during Instruction 129 Chapter Case Study 130 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY IN INSTRUCTIONAL ASSESSMENT 130 Problems That Affect Instructional Validity 131 Problems That Affect Instructional Reliability 132 Key Assessment Tools 5.1 =Validity and Reliability Problems of Instructional Assessment= 133 IMPROVING ASSESSMENT DURING INSTRUCTION 133 QUESTIONING: PURPOSES AND STRATEGIES 135 Purposes and Types of Questioning 135 Training Students to Self-Assess 139 Key Assessment Tools 5.2 =Encouraging Pupil Questioning Skills and Self-Assessment of Learning= 139 Questioning Strategies 140 ACCOMMODATIONS DURING INSTRUCTION 141 Common Disabilities and Accommodations 142 Technology and Assessment =Computer Adaptive Testing (CAT)= 143 Common Disabilities and Accommodations When Planning and Instructing 144 Common Nondisability Teacher-Pupil Issues 145 Chapter Summary 146 Chapter OLC Review 146 Questions for Discussion 147 Activities 147 Review Questions 147 References 148 CHAPTER 6 OFFICIAL ASSESSMENTS 149 FORMATIVE AND SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENTS 150 THE LOGIC OF FORMAL ASSESSMENT 153 PLANNING AN OFFICIAL ASSESSMENT 154 Chapter Case Study 154 Using a Table of Specifications 155 Decisions in Planning a Test 157 Key Assessment Tools 6.1 =Key Points to Consider in Judging Textbook Tests= 161 Key Assessment Tools 6.2 =Common Problems in Developing or Selecting Tests to Assess Pupil Achievement= 162 PREPARING PUPILS FOR OFFICIAL ASSESSMENTS 162 Issues of Test Preparation 162 Key Assessment Tools 6.3 =åDo No Harmp Testing Practices= 164 Provide Good Instruction 164 Technology and Assessment =Interactive Multi-Media Exercises (IMMEX)= 165 Review before Testing 165 Ensure Familiarity with Question Formats 166 Scheduling the Test 167 Giving Pupils Information about the Test 168 Chapter Summary 169 OLC Chapter Review 169 Questions for Discussion 170 Activity 170 Review Questions 171 References 171 CHAPTER 7 PAPER-AND-PENCIL TESTING 172 SELECTION AND SUPPLY TEST ITEMS 174 Selection Items 174 Supply Items 176 Comparing Selection and Supply 177 HIGHER-LEVEL QUESTIONS 177 Essay Questions 179 Interpretive Exercises 179 Chapter Case Study 182 GUIDELINES FOR WRITING AND CRITIQUING TEST ITEMS 182 Cover Important Objectives 182 Write Clearly and Simply: Seven Rules 185 Review Items before Testing 194 Technology and Assessment: =Computer versus Paper Testing= 195 Key Assessment Tools 7.1 =Writing Test Items= 196 ACCOMMODATIONS: SUBSTITUTIONS FOR PAPER-AND-PENCIL 197 Chapter Summary 200 OLC Chapter Review 201 Questions for Discussion 201 Activities 201 Review Questions 203 References 203 CHAPTER 8 IMPROVING PAPER-AND-PENCIL ASSESSMENTS 204 ASSEMBLING TESTS 205 Key Assessment Tools 8.1 =Guidelines for Assembling a Test= 207 ADMINISTERING TESTS 208 Physical Setting 208 Psychological Setting 208 Key Assessment Tools 8.2 =Guidelines for Administering a Test= 209 Keeping Track of Time 209 ISSUES OF CHEATING 210 Types of Cheating on Tests 210 Plagiarizing 211 Deterring Cheating 211 Chapter Case Study 212 SCORING PAPER-AND-PENCIL TESTS 214 Scoring Selection Items 215 Scoring Short-Answer and Completion Items 215 Scoring Essay Items 217 Key Assessment Tools 8.3 =Guidelines for Scoring a Test= 220 ANALYZING ITEM VALIDITY 220 The Need for After-Test Reviewing: Two Examples 221 Selective Reviewing of Multiple-Choice Items 222 DISCUSSING TEST RESULTS WITH PUPILS 224 TESTING STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 224 Technology and Assessment: =Accommodating Students with Disabilities During Testing= 226 Chapter Summary 227 OLC Chapter Review 227 Questions for Discussion 228 Activities 228 Review Questions 229 References 229 CHAPTER 9 PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENTS 230 PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENTS 232 The General Role of Performance Assessment in Schools 234 Performance-Oriented Subjects 235 Chapter Case Study 235 Early Childhood and Special Needs Pupils 236 Key Assessment Tools 9.1 =Early Childhood Behavior Areas= 237 DEVELOPING PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENTS 237 Define the Purpose of Assessment 238 Identify Performance Criteria 239 Key Assessment Tools 9.2 =Examples of Performance Criteria= 240 Key Assessment Tools 9.3 =Guidelines for Stating Performance Criteria= 245 Provide a Setting to Elicit and Observe the Performance 245 Chapter Case Study 246 Develop a Score to Describe the Performance 246 ANECDOTAL RECORDS, CHECKLISTS, AND RATING SCALES 247 Anecdotal Records 247 Checklists 247 Rating Scales 250 RUBRICS 253 Two Methods of Scoring 253 Devising Rubrics 254 Key Assessment Tools 9.4 =General Steps in Preparing and Using Rubrics= 256 Technology and Assessment =Performance Assessment Resources= 258 More Examples of Rubrics 259 Involving Pupils in the Use of Rubrics 260 Key Assessment Tools 9.5 =Generic Rubric to Score Writing to Persuade= 262 PORTFOLIOS 263 Key Assessment Tools 9.6 =What Can Go into a Portfolio= 264 Key Assessment Tools 9.7 =Portfolio Questions= 265 Purpose of Portfolios 266 Performance Criteria 266 Setting 267 Scoring 268 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENTS 271 Preparing Pupils 272 Validity 273 Reliability 274 Key Assessment Tools 9.8 =Improving Validity and Reliability of Performance Assessments= 275 Chapter Summary 276 OLC Chapter Review 276 Questions for Discussion 277 Activities 278 Review Questions 279 References 279 CHAPTER 10 GRADING 281 RATIONALE AND DIFFICULTIES OF GRADING 283 Why Grade? 283 The Difficulty of Grading 289 GRADING AS JUDGMENT 290 Chapter Case Study 291 FOUR TYPES OF COMPARISON FOR GRADING 292 Norm-Referenced Grading (Comparison with Other Pupils) 292 Criterion-Referenced Grading (Predefined Standards) 294 Comparison to a Pupilps Ability 298 Comparison to Pupil Improvement 300 GRADING FOR COOPERATIVE LEARNING AND PUPILS WITH DISABILITIES 300 Grading in Cooperative Learning 300 Grading Pupils with Disabilities 302 DECIDING WHAT TO GRADE 305 Academic Achievement 306 Affective Performances 307 SUMMARIZING VARIED TYPES OF ASSESSMENT 308 What Should Be Included in a Grade? 312 Selecting Weights for Assessment Information 313 Combining Different Assessment Information 314 Technology and Assessment =Norm-Referenced and Criterion- Referenced Grading Systems= 315 Validity of the Information 316 Computing Overall Scores 318 TWO APPROACHES TO ASSIGNING GRADES 319 A Criterion-Referenced Example 319 Key Assessment Tools 10.1 =Steps in the Grading Process= 321 A Norm-Referenced Example 321 Key Assessment Tools 10.2 =Guidelines for Grading= 322 OTHER METHODS OF REPORTING PUPIL PROGRESS 323 Parent-Teacher Conferences 323 Key Assessment Tools 10.3 =Options for Parent-Teacher Communication= 323 Additional Reporting Methods 326 Key Assessment Tools 10.4 =Parent-Teacher Conferences= 327 Chapter Summary 327 OLC Chapter Review 328 Questions for Discussion 328 Activity 329 Review Questions 330 References 330 CHAPTER 11 COMMERCIAL STANDARDIZED ACHIEVEMENT TESTS 332 HOW COMMERCIAL ACHIEVEMENT TESTS ARE CREATED 335 Test Construction 336 ADMINISTERING THE TEST 340 The Need for Consistent Administration 340 Accommodations for Disabilities 341 INTERPRETING SCORES 342 Percentile Rank Scores 343 Stanine Scores 343 Grade Equivalent Scores 344 Chapter Case Study 346 THREE EXAMPLES OF TEST INTERPRETATION 346 Example 1: Pupil Performance Report 347 Example 2: Class Performance Report 351 Example 3: Summary Report for Parents 353 THE VALIDITY OF COMMERCIAL ACHIEVEMENT TESTS 355 Appropriate Coverage 356 Representative Norms 357 Conditions of Administration 357 Potential Misinterpretations 358 Technology and Assessment =Resources for Commercial Standardized Tests= 359 REPORTING RESULTS TO PARENTS 360 Key Assessment Tools 11.1 =Reporting Standardized Test Results to Parents= 361 CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT: SUMMING UP 362 Collecting Assessment Information 362 Interpreting Assessment Information: Five Guidelines 363 Key Assessment Tools 11.2 =Principles for Interpreting Assessment Information= 363 Key Assessment Tools 11.3 =Guidelines for Interpreting Assessment Information= 367 Assessment: A Tool Used Wisely 367 Chapter Summary 368 OLC Chapter Review 368 Questions for Discussion 369 Activity 370 Review Questions 370 References 371 APPENDIX A 372 Standards for Teacher Competence in Educational Assessment of Students APPENDIX B 380 Taxonomy of Educational Objectives; Major Categories APPENDIX C 381 Sample Individual Education Plan APPENDIX D 389 Statistical Applications for Classroom Assessment GLOSSARY 399 CREDITS 403 NAME INDEX 405 SUBJECT INDEX 408 N2 - Classroom Assessment: Concepts and Applications views classroom assessment as an everyday, ongoing, integral part of teaching, not something that is separated from life in classrooms. The text is thus organized in a manner that follows the natural progression of teacher decision making, from organizing the class as a learning community to planning and conducting instruction to the formal evaluation of learning and, finally, to grading. Classroom Assessment presents complex concepts clearly so that pre-service teachers can understand them, and solidly grounds these concepts in best practice through practical, real, well-integrated examples. The text conceives of classroom assessment in a broader way than many other texts. It focuses not only on the assessment needs of testing, grading, interpreting standardized tests, and performance assessments but also on assessment concerns in organizing a classroom at the start of school, planning and implementing instruction, and strategies of teacher self reflection UR - http://www.loc.gov/catdir/toc/ecip0713/2007010777.html UR - http://www.loc.gov/catdir/enhancements/fy0713/2007010777-d.html UR - http://www.loc.gov/catdir/enhancements/fy0735/2007010777-b.html ER -