Physical geology : investigating earth / Reed Wicander, James Monroe

Includes index.

Preface
Acknowledgments
Author Biography
Chapter 1. Understanding Earth: A Dynamic and Evolving Planet
1.1. Introduction
1.2. What Is Geology?
1.3. Geology and the Formulation of Theories
1.4. How Does Geology Relate to the Human Experience?
1.5. How Does Geology Affect Our Everyday Lives?
1.5a. Natural Disasters
1.5b. Our Role as Decision Makers, Consumers, and Citizens
1.6. Global Geologic and Environmental Issues Facing Humankind
1.7. Origin of the Universe and Solar System, and Earth’s Place in Them
1.7a. Origin of the Universe: Did It Begin with a Big Bang?
1.7b. Our Solar System: Its Origin and Evolution
1.7c. Earth: Its Place in Our Solar System
1.8. Why Earth Is a Dynamic and Evolving Planet
1.8a. Plate Tectonic Theory
1.9. The Rock Cycle
1.9a. The Relationship Between Plate Tectonics and the Rock Cycle
1.10. Organic Evolution and Plate Tectonics
1.11. Geologic Time and Uniformitarianism
1.12. How Is the Study of Geology Beneficial to Us?
Key Concepts Review
Important Terms
Review Questions
What Would You Do?
Chapter 2. Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Early Ideas about Continental Drift
2.2a. Alfred Wegener and the Continental Drift Hypothesis
2.3. What Is the Evidence Supporting Continental Drift?
2.3a. Continental Fit
2.3b. Similarity of Rock Sequences and Mountain Ranges
2.3c. Glacial Evidence
2.3d. Fossil Evidence
2.4. Features of the Seafloor
2.4a. The Continental Shelf, Slope, and Rise
2.4b. Submarine Fans and Submarine Canyons
2.4c. Abyssal Plains, Oceanic Ridges, Submarine Hydrothermal Vents, and Oceanic Trenches
2.4d. Seafloor Fractures, Seamounts, Guyots, and Aseismic Ridges
2.4e. Continental Margins
2.5. Earth’s Magnetic Field
2.5a. Inclination and Declination of the Magnetic Field
2.6. Paleomagnetism and Polar Wandering
2.7. Seafloor Spreading
2.8. Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory
2.9. The Three Types of Plate Boundaries
2.9a. Divergent Boundaries
2.9b. Convergent Boundaries
2.9c. Transform Boundaries
2.10. Hot Spots and Mantle Plumes
2.11. Plate Movement and Motion
2.12. The Driving Mechanism of Plate Tectonics
2.13. Plate Tectonics and the Distribution of Natural Resources
2.13a. Petroleum
2.13b. Mineral Deposits
2.14. Plate Tectonics and the Distribution of Life
Key Concepts Review
Important Terms
Review Questions
What Would You Do?
Chapter 3. Minerals: The Building Blocks of Rocks
3.1. Introduction
3.2. What Is Matter?
3.2a. Atoms and Elements
3.2b. Bonding and Compounds
3.3. What Are Minerals?
3.3a. Naturally Occurring Inorganic Substances
3.3b. Mineral Crystals
3.3c. Chemical Composition of Minerals
3.3d. Physical Properties of Minerals
3.4. Mineral Groups Recognized by Geologists
3.4a. Silicate Minerals
3.4b. Carbonate Minerals
3.4c. Other Mineral Groups
3.5. Physical Properties of Minerals
3.5a. Luster and Color
3.5b. Crystal Form
3.5c. Cleavage and Fracture
3.5d. Hardness
3.5e. Specific Gravity (Density)
3.5f. Other Useful Mineral Properties
3.6. Rock-Forming Minerals
3.7. How Do Minerals Form?
3.8. Natural Resources and Reserves
Key Concepts Review
Important Terms
Review Questions
What Would You Do?
Chapter 4. Igneous Rocks and Intrusive Igneous Activity
4.1. Introduction
4.2. The Properties and Behavior of Magma and Lava
4.2a. Composition of Magma
4.2b. How Hot Are Magma and Lava?
4.2c. Viscosity: Resistance to Flow
4.3. How Does Magma Originate and Change?
4.3a. Bowen’s Reaction Series
4.3b. The Origin of Magma at Spreading Ridges
4.3c. Subduction Zones and the Origin of Magma
4.3d. Hot Spots and the Origin of Magma
4.3e. Compositional Changes in Magma
4.4. Characteristics and Classification of Igneous Rocks
4.4a. Igneous Rock Textures
4.4b. Composition of Igneous Rocks
4.4c. Classifying Igneous Rocks
4.5. Intrusive Igneous Bodies: Plutons
4.5a. Dikes and Sills
4.5b. Laccoliths
4.5c. Volcanic Pipes and Necks
4.5d. Batholiths and Stocks
4.6. The Origin of Batholiths
Key Concepts Review
Important Terms
Review Questions
What Would You Do?
Chapter 5. Volcanoes and Volcanism
5.1. Introduction
5.2. Volcanoes and Volcanism
5.2a. Volcanic Gases
5.2b. Lava Flows
5.2c. Pyroclastic Materials
5.3. Types of Volcanoes
5.3a. Shield Volcanoes
5.3b. Cinder Cones
5.3c. Composite Volcanoes (Stratovolcanoes)
5.3d. Lava Domes
5.4. Other Volcanic Landforms
5.4a. Fissure Eruptions and Basalt Plateaus
5.4b. Pyroclastic Sheet Deposits
5.5. Distribution of Volcanoes
5.6. Plate Tectonics, Volcanoes, and Plutons
5.6a. Igneous Activity at Divergent Plate Boundaries
5.6b. Igneous Activity at Convergent Plate Boundaries
5.6c. Intraplate Volcanism
5.7. Volcanic Hazards, Volcanic Monitoring, and Forecasting Eruptions
5.7a. How Large Are Eruptions, and How Long Can They Last?
5.7b. Is It Possible to Forecast Eruptions?
Key Concepts Review
Important Terms
Review Questions
What Would You Do?
Chapter 6. Weathering, Erosion, and Soil
6.1. Introduction
6.2. How Are Earth Materials Altered?
6.3. Mechanical Weathering—Disaggregation of Earth Materials
6.3a. Frost Action
6.3b. Pressure Release
6.3c. Thermal Expansion and Contraction
6.3d. Growth of Salt Crystals
6.3e. Animal and Plant Activity
6.4. Chemical Weathering—Decomposition of Earth Materials
6.4a. Solution
6.4b. Oxidation
6.4c. Hydrolysis
6.4d. The Rate of Chemical Weathering
6.5. Soil and Its Origin
6.5a. The Soil Profile
6.5b. Factors That Control Soil Formation
6.5c. Expansive Soils
6.6. Soil Degradation
6.6a. Soil Erosion
6.6b. Chemical and Physical Soil Degradation
6.7. Weathering and Resources
Key Concepts Review
Important Terms
Review Questions
What Would You Do?
Chapter 7. Sediment and Sedimentary Rocks
7.1. Introduction
7.2. Sediment Transport and Deposition
7.2a. Sediment Transport
7.2b. Deposition and Depositional Environments
7.3. How Does Sediment Become Sedimentary Rock?
7.3a. Compaction
7.3b. Cementation
7.4. Types of Sedimentary Rocks
7.4a. Detrital Sedimentary Rocks
7.4b. Chemical and Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks
7.5. Sedimentary Facies
7.5a. Marine Transgressions and Regressions
7.5b. Causes of Marine Transgressions and Regressions
7.6. Reading the Story Preserved in Sedimentary Rocks
7.6a. Sedimentary Structures
7.6b. Fossils: Remains and Traces of Ancient Life
7.6c. Determining the Environment of Deposition
7.7. Important Resources in Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks
7.7a. Coal
7.7b. Petroleum and Natural Gas
7.7c. Uranium
7.7d. Banded Iron Formation
Key Concepts Review
Important Terms
Review Questions
What Would You Do?
Chapter 8. Metamorphism and Metamorphic Rocks
8.1. Introduction
8.2. The Agents of Metamorphism
8.2a. Heat
8.2b. Pressure
8.2c. Fluid Activity
8.3. The Three Types of Metamorphism
8.3a. Contact Metamorphism
8.3b. Dynamic Metamorphism
8.3c. Regional Metamorphism
8.4. Index Minerals and Metamorphic Grade
8.5. How Are Metamorphic Rocks Classified?
8.5a. Foliated Metamorphic Rocks
8.5b. Nonfoliated Metamorphic Rocks
8.6. Metamorphic Zones and Facies
8.7. Plate Tectonics and Metamorphism
8.8. Metamorphism and Natural Resources
Key Concepts Review
Important Terms
Review Questions
What Would You Do?
Chapter 9. Earthquakes
9.1. Introduction
9.2. Elastic Rebound Theory
9.3. Seismology
9.3a. The Focus and Epicenter of an Earthquake
9.4. Where Do Earthquakes Occur, and How Often?
9.5. Seismic Waves
9.5a. Body Waves
9.5b. Surface Waves
9.6. Locating an Earthquake’s Epicenter
9.7. Measuring the Strength of an Earthquake
9.7a. Intensity
9.7b. Magnitude
9.8. The Destructive Effects of Earthquakes
9.8a. Ground Shaking
9.8b. Fire
9.8c. Tsunami: Killer Waves
9.8d. Ground Failure
9.9. Earthquake Prediction
Key Concepts Review
Important Terms
Review Questions
What Would You Do?
Chapter 10. Earth’s Interior
10.1. Introduction
10.2. Earth’s Size, Density, and Internal Structure
10.2a. Seismic Waves and Earth’s Interior
10.2b. Seismic Tomography and Earth’s Interior
10.3. Earth’s Core
10.3a. Discovery of Earth’s Core
10.3b. Density and Composition of the Core
10.4. Earth’s Mantle
10.4a. The Moho
10.4b. The Mantle’s Structure, Density, and Composition
10.5. Earth’s Crust
10.5a. Continental Crust
10.5b. Oceanic Crust
10.6. Earth’s Internal Heat and Heat Flow
10.7. Gravity and Its Determination
10.7a. Gravity
10.7b. Gravity Anomalies
10.8. The Principle of Isostasy
10.8a. Isostatic Rebound
Key Concepts Review
Important Terms
Review Questions
What Would You Do?
Chapter 11. Deformation, Mountain Building, and the Continents
11.1. Introduction
11.2. Rock Deformation
11.2a. Stress and Strain
11.2b. Types of Strain
11.3. Strike and Dip: The Orientation of Deformed Rock Layers
11.4. Deformation and Geologic Structures
11.4a. Folded Rock Layers
11.4b. Joints
11.4c. Faults
11.4d. Dip-Slip Faults
11.4e. Strike-Slip Faults
11.4f. Oblique-Slip Faults
11.5. Deformation and the Origin of Mountains
11.5a. Types of Mountains
11.5b. Plate Tectonics and Mountain Building
11.5c. Terranes and the Origin of Mountains
Key Concepts Review
Important Terms
Review Questions
What Would You Do?
Chapter 12. Mass Wasting
12.1. Introduction
12.2. Factors That Influence Mass Wasting
12.2a. Slope Angle
12.2b. Weathering and Climate
12.2c. Water Content
12.2d. Vegetation
12.2e. Overloading
12.2f. Geology and Slope Stability
12.2g. Triggering Mechanisms
12.3. Types of Mass Wasting
12.3a. Falls
12.3b. Slides
12.3c. Flows
12.3d. Complex Movements
12.4. Recognizing and Minimizing the Effects of Mass Wasting
Key Concepts Review
Important Terms
Review Questions
What Would You Do?
Chapter 13. Running Water
13.1. Introduction
13.2. Water on Earth
13.2a. The Hydrologic Cycle
13.2b. Fluid Flow
13.3. Running Water
13.3a. Sheet Flow and Channel Flow
13.3b. Stream Gradient
13.3c. Stream Velocity and Discharge
13.4. Running Water, Erosion, and Sediment Transport
13.5. Deposition by Running Water
13.5a. The Deposits of Braided Streams
13.5b. Meandering Streams and Their Deposits
13.5c. Floodplain Deposits
13.5d. Deltas
13.5e. Alluvial Fans
13.6. Flood Control and Prediction
13.7. Drainage Systems
13.7a. The Significance of Base Level
13.7b. Graded Streams
13.8. The Evolution of Valleys
13.8a. Stream Terraces
13.8b. Incised Meanders
13.8c. Superposed Streams
13.9. Valley Development – A Summary
Key Concepts Review
Important Terms
Review Questions
What Would You Do?
Chapter 14. Groundwater
14.1. Introduction
14.2. Groundwater and the Hydrologic Cycle
14.3. Porosity and Permeability
14.4. The Water Table
14.5. Groundwater Movement
14.6. Springs, Water Wells, and Artesian Systems
14.6a. Springs
14.6b. Water Wells
14.6c. Artesian Systems
14.7. Groundwater Erosion and Deposition
14.7a. Sinkholes and Karst Topography
14.7b. Caves and Cave Deposits
14.8. Modifications of the Groundwater System and Its Effects
14.8a. Lowering the Water Table
14.8b. Saltwater Intrusion
14.8c. Subsidence
14.8d. Groundwater Contamination
14.8e. Groundwater Quality
14.9. Hydrothermal Activity
14.9a. Hot Springs
14.9b. Geysers
14.9c. Geothermal Energy
Key Concepts Review
Important Terms
Review Questions
What Would You Do?
Chapter 15. Glaciers and Glaciation
15.1. Introduction
15.2. Glaciers and Glaciation
15.2a. Glaciers—Part of the Hydrologic Cycle
15.2b. Glacial Formation and Movement
15.2c. Distribution of Glaciers
15.3. Types of Glaciers
15.3a. Valley Glaciers
15.3b. Continental Glaciers and Ice Caps
15.4. The Glacial Budget—Accumulation and Wastage
15.4a. How Fast Do Glaciers Move?
15.4b. Glacial Surges
15.5. Glacial Erosion and Transport
15.5a. Erosion by Valley Glaciers
15.5b. Continental Glaciers and Erosional Landforms
15.6. Glacial Deposits
15.6a. Glacial Drift
15.6b. Landforms Composed of Till
15.6c. Landforms Composed of Stratified Drift
15.6d. Glacial Lake Deposits
15.7. The Ice Age
15.7a. Pleistocene Climates
15.7b. Pluvial and Proglacial Lakes
15.7c. Glaciation and Changes in Sea Level
15.7d. Glaciers and Isostasy
15.8. What Causes Ice Ages?
15.8a. The Milankovitch Theory
15.8b. Short-Term Climatic Events
15.9. Glaciers Today
Key Concepts Review
Important Terms
Review Questions
What Would You Do?
Chapter 16. The Work of Wind and Deserts
16.1. Introduction
16.2. Sediment Transport by Wind
16.2a. Bed Load
16.2b. Suspended Load
16.3. Wind Erosion
16.3a. Abrasion
16.3b. Deflation
16.4. Wind Deposits
16.4a. The Formation and Migration of Dunes
16.4b. Dune Types
16.4c. Loess
16.5. Air-Pressure Belts and Global Wind Patterns
16.6. The Distribution of Deserts
16.7. Characteristics of Deserts
16.7a. Temperature, Precipitation, and Vegetation
16.7b. Weathering and Soils
16.7c. Mass Wasting, Streams, and Groundwater
16.7d. Wind
16.8. Desert Landforms
Key Concepts Review
Important Terms
Review Questions
What Would You Do?
Chapter 17. Oceans, Shorelines, and Shoreline Processes
17.1. Introduction
17.2. Seawater, Oceanic Circulation, and Seafloor Sediments
17.2a. Seawater—Its Composition
17.2b. Oceanic Circulation
17.2c. Seafloor Sediments
17.3. Tides, Waves, and Nearshore Currents
17.3a. Tides
17.3b. Waves
17.3c. Nearshore Currents
17.4. Shoreline Erosion
17.4a. Wave-Cut Platforms
17.4b. Sea Caves, Sea Arches, and Sea Stacks
17.5. Shoreline Deposition
17.5a. Beaches
17.5b. Seasonal Changes in Beaches
17.5c. Spits, Baymouth Bars, and Tombolos
17.5d. Barrier Islands
17.6. The Nearshore Sediment Budget
17.7. Types of Coasts
17.7a. Depositional and Erosional Coasts
17.7b. Submergent and Emergent Coasts
17.8. The Perils of Living along a Shoreline
17.8a. Storm Waves and Coastal Flooding
17.8b. Coastal Management as Sea Level Rises
17.9. Resources from the Oceans
Key Concepts Review
Important Terms
Review Questions
What Would You Do?
Chapter 18. Geologic Time: Concepts and Principles
18.1. Introduction
18.2. How Geologic Time Is Measured
18.3. Early Concepts of Geologic Time and Earth’s Age
18.4. James Hutton and the Recognition of Geologic Time
18.5. Relative Dating Methods
18.5a. Fundamental Principles of Relative Dating
18.5b. Unconformities
18.5c. Applying the Principles of Relative Dating
18.6. Correlating Rock Units
18.6a. Subsurface Correlation
18.7. Numerical Dating Methods
18.7a. Radioactive Decay and Half-Lives
18.7b. Sources of Uncertainty
18.7c. Long-Lived Radioactive Isotope Pairs
18.7d. Other Radioactive Isotope Pairs
18.7e. Fission-Track Dating
18.7f. Radiocarbon and Tree-Ring Dating
18.8. Development of the Geologic Time Scale
18.9. Stratigraphy and Stratigraphic Terminology
18.10. Geologic Time and Climate Change
Key Concepts Review
Important Terms
Review Questions
What Would You Do?
Appendix A. English-Metric Conversion Chart
Appendix B. Mineral Identification Tables

Physical Geology: Investigating Earth
The overarching goal of Physical Geology: Investigating Earth is to provide students with a basic understanding of geology and its processes and, most importantly, with an understanding of how geology relates to the human experience, that is, how geology affects individuals, society, and nation-states.