Power system protection : fundamentals and applications / John Ciufo, Aaron Cooperberg.

John Ciufo is a registered Professional Engineer in Ontario, Canada with over four decades of experience in the electric utility field with a focus on protection and control. He is a Technical Advisor for the Centre for Energy Advancement Technological Innovations (CEATI) for the Protection and Control Group. John is a principal owner of Ciufo & Cooperberg Consulting Inc., a company that specializes in power system protection.

Aaron Cooperberg is a registered Engineer in Ontario, Canada with over four decades of experience in the electric utility field focusing on power system protection. He is a principal owner of Ciufo & Cooperberg Consulting Inc.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

About the Authors xix

Preface xxi

Acknowledgements xxiii

1 What Is Power System Protection, Why Is It Required and Some Basics? 1

1.1 What Is Power System Protection? 1

1.2 Why Is Power System Protections Required? 2

1.3 Some Basic Protection System Terms and Information 6

References 12

2 Basic Power System Protection Components 13

2.1 General Description 13

2.2 Power System Protection Components 13

2.3 Physical Implementation 21

2.4 Power System Isolation Devices and Control Interfaces 23

2.5 Redundancy Arrangements 24

3 AC Signal Sources 27

3.1 Introduction 27

3.2 Current Transformers 27

3.3 Voltage Sources 53

References 56

4 Basic Types of Protection Relays and Their Operation 57

4.1 General 57

4.3 Overcurrent 59

4.4 Differential 77

4.5 Distance 86

Reference 94

5 Protection Information Representation, Nomenclature, and Jargon 95

5.1 General 95

5.2 Protection Drawing Types 95

5.3 Nomenclature and Device Numbers 108

5.4 Classification of Relays 112

5.5 Protection Jargon 114

Reference 116

6 Per-Unit System and Fault Calculations 117

6.1 General 117

6.2 Per-Unit 118

6.3 Fundamental Need for Fault Information 125

6.4 Symmetrical Components 128

6.5 Sequence Impedances of Power Apparatus 131

6.6 Balanced Fault Analysis 139

6.7 Sequence Networks 140

6.8 Summary of Unbalance Fault Calculations 144

6.9 High-Level Summary of the Fault Calculation Process 147

6.10 Useful Fault Calculation Formulas/Methods 148

6.11 Fault Calculation Examples 149

References 157

7 Protection Zones 159

7.1 Protection Zones General 159

7.2 Zones Defined 159

7.3 Zone Overlap Around Breakers 161

7.4 Protection Zoning at Stations 163

7.5 Protection Zones in General 170

7.6 Backup Protection 177

7.7 CT Configuration and Protection Trip Zones 178

7.8 Where Protections Zones do not Overlap Around Breakers 182

7.9 Lines Terminating Directly on Buses at a HV Switching Station 183

8 Transformer Protection 185

8.1 Introduction 185

8.2 General Principles 185

8.3 Differential Protection Power Transformers 186

8.4 Percent Differential Protection Autotransformers 220

8.5 Transformer Percent Differential Setting Examples 227

Reference 235

9 Bus Protection 237

9.1 Introduction 237

9.2 Typical Bus Arrangements 237

9.3 Bus Protection Requirements 239

9.4 Methods of Protecting Buses 239

9.5 Example High Impedance Differential Protection Setting 264

Reference 267

10 Breaker Failure Protection and Automatic Reclosing 269

10.1 Introduction 269

10.2 Breaker Failure General Background 269

10.3 Breaker Automatic Reclosing General Background 283

11 Station Protection 285

11.1 Introduction 285

11.2 Types of Stations 285

11.3 Station and Protection Architecture 287

11.4 Station Switchgear Type 300

11.5 Sub-Transmission Types and Station Grounding 302

11.6 Master Ground 303

12 Capacitor Bank Protection 307

12.1 Capacitor Banks 307

12.2 Purpose for Shunt Capacitors on Power System Networks 307

12.3 Capacitor Bank Construction 308

12.4 Capacitor Bank Protection 319

12.5 Capacitor Bank Breakers 324

12.6 Capacitor Bank Sample Settings 324

Reference 333

13 Synchronous Generator Protection 335

13.1 Introduction 335

13.2 General 336

13.3 Generator/Unit Transformer Protections 340

13.4 Current Transformers 355

13.5 Generator Protection Sample Settings 356

13.6 Generator Control and Protection Systems Coordination 363

13.7 General Generator Tripping Requirements 369

13.8 Breaker Failure Initiation 370

Reference 370

14 Transmission Line Protection 371

14.1 General 371

14.2 Basic Line Protection Requirements 371

14.3 Impedance Relays and Why Not Just Overcurrent Relays 372

14.4 Distance Relay Response to Fault Types 376

14.5 Apparent Impedance 381

14.6 Redundancy/Backup 388

14.7 Tele-Protection (Also Known as Pilot-Protection) 390

14.8 General Implications 399

14.9 Peripheral Requirements of Distance Protection 400

14.10 Tele-Protection (Pilot-Protection) A Historical Perspective 408

14.11 Tele-Protection via Power Line Carrier 408

14.12 Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) 409

14.13 Three-Terminal Lines 410

14.14 Distributed Generation 413

14.15 Distance Relay Response to Resistive Faults 421

14.16 Power System Considerations 428

14.17 Line Current Differential Protection 433

14.18 Pilot Wire Protection 439

14.19 Power System Considerations 440

14.20 Line Setting Application Example 443

References 453

15 Subtransmission/Distribution Feeder Protection 455

15.1 Subtransmission/Distribution Characteristics 455

15.2 Definitions/Characteristics 455

15.3 Distribution Feeder Protection Devices 459

15.4 Protection Coordination Principles 482

15.5 Feeder Energization 491

15.6 Subtransmission Feeder Protection 493

15.7 Impact of Distributed Generators (DGs) on Distribution Feeder Protection 509

15.8 Feeder Protection Application Settings Example 516

References 522

Index 523

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