Ecology : concepts & applications/ Manuel C. Molles, Jr.

By: Molles, Manuel C, 1948- [author]
Publisher: New York : McGraw-Hill Higher Education, c2008Edition: Fourth editionDescription: xx, 604 pages : color illustrations ; 28 cmContent type: text Media type: unmediated Carrier type: volumeISBN: 9780073050829; 9780073309767Subject(s): Ecology | Population ecology | Global ecologyDDC classification: 577
Contents:
Contents Preface xi 1 Introduction:What Is Ecology? 1 Overview of Ecology 2 The Ecology of Forest Birds: Using Field Studies to Test Theory 3 The Ecology of Bumblebees: Contributions of Field and Laboratory Studies 5 Forest Nutrient Budgets: Inventories and Large-Scale Experiments 6 Vegetation Change: Information from Pollen Records and Modeling 8 The Nature and Scope of Ecology 11 On the Net 12 Section I Natural History 2 Life on Land 14 Terrestrial Biomes 16 Concepts 16 Concept Discussion: Large-Scale Patterns of Climatic Variation 17 Temperature, Atmospheric Circulation, and Precipitation 17 Climate Diagrams 18 Concept Discussion: Soil: The Foundation of Terrestrial Biomes 21 Concept Discussion: Natural History and Geography of Biomes 23 Tropical Rain Forest 23 Tropical Dry Forest 25 Tropical Savanna 28 Desert 30 Mediterranean Woodland and Shrubland 33 Temperate Grassland 35 Temperate Forest 37 Boreal Forest 39 Tundra 42 Mountains: Islands in the Sky 44 Applications & Tools: Climatic Variation and the Palmer Drought Severity Index 47 3 Life in Water 52 Concepts 53 Concept Discussion: The Hydrologic Cycle 53 Concept Discussion: The Natural History of Aquatic Environments 54 The Deep Blue Sea 54 Life in Shallow Marine Waters: Kelp Forests and Coral Gardens 59 Marine Shores: Life Between High and Low Tides 64 Estuaries, Salt Marshes, and Mangrove Forests 68 Rivers and Streams: Life Blood and Pulse of the Continents 72 Lakes: Small Seas 78 Applications & Tools: Biological Integrity/Assessing the Health of Aquatic Systems 82 Number of Species and Species Composition 83 Trophic Composition 83 Fish Abundance and Condition 84 An Application 84 Section II Individuals 4 Temperature Relations 89 Concepts 90 Concept Discussion: Microclimates 90 Altitude 91 Aspect 91 Vegetation 91 Color of the Ground 92 Presence of Boulders and Burrows 93 Aquatic Temperatures 93 Concept Discussion: Temperature and Performance of Organisms 94 Temperature and Animal Performance 94 Extreme Temperatures and Photosynthesis 96 Temperature and Microbial Activity 98 Concept Discussion: Regulating Body Temperature 99 Balancing Heat Gain Against Heat Loss 99 Temperature Regulation by Plants 100 Temperature Regulation by Ectothermic Animals 102 Temperature Regulation by Endothermic Animals 105 Temperature Regulation by Thermogenic Plants 109 Concept Discussion: Surviving Extreme Temperatures 110 Inactivity 110 Reducing Metabolic Rate 111 Hibernation by a Tropical Species 111 Applications & Tools: Climatic Warming and the Local Extinction of a Land Snail 113 5 Water Relations 117 Concepts 119 Concept Discussion: Water Availability 119 Water Content of Air 119 Water Movement in Aquatic Environments 120 Water Movement Between Soils and Plants 121 Concept Discussion: Water Regulation on Land 124 Water Acquisition by Animals 125 Water Acquisition by Plants 126 Water Conservation by Plants and Animals 128 Dissimilar Organisms with Similar Approaches to Desert Life 132 Two Arthropods with Opposite Approaches to Desert Life 133 Concept Discussion: Water and Salt Balance in Aquatic Environments 136 Marine Fish and Invertebrates 137 Freshwater Fish and Invertebrates 137 Applications & Tools: Using Stable Isotopes to Study Water Uptake by Plants 138 Stable Isotope Analysis 139 Using Stable Isotopes to Identify Plant Water Sources 140 6 Energy and Nutrient Relations 144 Concepts 145 Concept Discussion: Energy Sources 145 Using Light and CO2 146 Using Organic Molecules 150 Using Inorganic Molecules 154 Concept Discussion: Energy Limitation 157 Photon Flux and Photosynthetic Response Curves 157 Food Density and Animal Functional Response 158 Concept Discussion: Optimal Foraging Theory 159 Testing Optimal Foraging Theory 160 Optimal Foraging by Plants 161 Applications & Tools: Bioremediation/Using the Trophic Diversity of Bacteria to Solve Environmental Problems 164 Removing a Mountain of Sewage 164 Leaking Underground Storage Tanks 164 Cyanide and Nitrates in Mine Spoils 165 7 Social Relations 170 Concepts 173 Concept Discussion: Mate Choice 173 Mate Choice and Sexual Selection in Guppies 173 Mate Choice Among Scorpionflies 178 Nonrandom Mating Among Wild Radish 180 Concept Discussion: Sociality 183 Cooperative Breeders 184 Applications & Tools: The Comparative Method/A Tool for Understanding Complex Evolutionary Histories 188 Eusocial Species 189 Evolution of Eusociality 191 Section III Population Ecology 8 Population Genetics and Natural Selection 197 Concepts 200 Concept Discussion: Variation Within Populations 200 Variation in Plant Populations 200 Variation in Animal Populations 202 Concept Discussion: Hardy-Weinberg 205 Calculating Gene Frequencies 206 Concept Discussion: The Process of Natural Selection 209 Stabilizing Selection 209 Directional Selection 210 Disruptive Selection 210 Concept Discussion: Evolution by Natural Selection 210 Evolution by Natural Selection and Genetic Variation 210 Adaptive Change in Colonizing Lizards 211 Rapid Adaptation by Soapberry Bugs to New Host Plants 214 Concept Discussion: Change Due to Chance 215 Evidence of Genetic Drift in Chihuahua Spruce 215 Genetic Variation in Island Populations 216 Genetic Diversity and Butterfly Extinctions 217 Applications & Tools: Estimating Genetic Variation in Populations 218 Transplant Experiments 218 Molecular Approaches to Genetic Variation 219 9 Population Distribution and Abundance 226 Concepts 228 Concept Discussion: Distribution Limits 228 Kangaroo Distributions and Climate 228 A Tiger Beetle of Cold Climates 229 Distributions of Plants Along a Moisture-Temperature Gradient 230 Distributions of Barnacles Along an Intertidal Exposure Gradient 231 Concept Discussion: Distribution Patterns 233 Distributions of Individuals on Small Scales 233 Distributions of Individuals on Large Scales 236 Bird Populations Across North America 238 Concept Discussion: Metapopulations 240 A Metapopulation of an Alpine Butterfly 240 Dispersal Within a Metapopulation of Lesser Kestrels 241 Concept Discussion: Organism Size and Population Density 242 Animal Size and Population Density 243 Plant Size and Population Density 244 Concept Discussion: Commonness and Rarity 244 Seven Forms of Rarity and One of Abundance 244 Applications & Tools: Estimating Abundance/From Whales to Sponges 247 Estimating Whale Population Size 247 The Relative Abundance of Corals, Algae, and Sponges 250 10 Population Dynamics 254 Concepts 256 Concept Discusssion: Patterns of Survival 256 Estimating Patterns of Survival 256 High Survival Among the Young 257 Constant Rates of Survival 258 High Mortality Among the Young 259 Three Types of Survivorship Curves 259 Concept Discussion: Age Distribution 260 Stable and Declining Tree Populations 260 A Dynamic Population in a Variable Climate 261 Concept Discussion: Rates of Population Change 262 Estimating Rates for an Annual Plant 262 Estimating Rates When Generations Overlap 264 Concept Discussion: Dispersal 266 Dispersal of Expanding Populations 266 Range Changes in Response to Climate Change 268 Dispersal in Response to Changing Food Supply 270 Dispersal in Rivers and Streams 270 Applications & Tools: Using Population Dynamics to Assess the Impact of Pollutants 272 11 Population Growth 277 Concepts 278 Concept Discussion: Geometric and Exponential Population Growth 279 Geometric Growth 279 Exponential Growth 280 Exponential Growth in Nature 280 Concept Discussion: Logistic Population Growth 282 Concept Discussion: Limits to Population Growth 285 Environment and Birth and Death Among Galapagos Finches 285 Concept Discussion: Small and Fast Versus Large and Slow/The Intrinsic Rate of Increase 289 Population Growth by Small Marine Invertebrates 289 Growth of a Whale Population 290 Applications & Tools: The Human Population 291 Distribution and Abundance 291 Population Dynamics 293 Population Growth 294 12 Life Histories 298 Concepts 299 Concept Discussion: Offspring Number Versus Size 300 Egg Size and Number in Fish 300 Seed Size and Number in Plants 302 Concept Discussion: Adult Survival and Reproductive Allocation 306 Life History Variation Among Species 306 Life History Variation Within Species 308 Concept Discussion: Life History Classification 311 r and K Selection 311 Plant Life Histories 312 Opportunistic, Equilibrium, and Periodic Life Histories 314 Reproductive Effort, Offspring Size, and Benefit-Cost Ratios 315 Applications & Tools: Using Life History Information to Restore Riparian Forests 317 Section IV Interactions 13 Competition 323 Concepts 325 Concept Discussion: Resource Competition 325 Intraspecific Competition Among Herbaceous Plants 325 Intraspecific Competition Among Planthoppers 326 Interference Competition Among Terrestrial Isopods 327 Concept Discussion: Niches 327 The Feeding Niches of Gal pagos Finches 328 The Habitat Niche of a Salt Marsh Grass 330 Concept Discussion: Mathematical and Laboratory Models 330 Modeling Interspecific Competition 331 Laboratory Models of Competition 332 Concept Discussion: Competition and Niches 334 Niches and Competition Among Plants 334 Niche Overlap and Competition Between Barnacles 335 Competition and the Habitat of a Salt Marsh Grass 337 Competition and the Niches of Small Rodents 337 Character Displacement 338 Evidence for Competition in Nature 340 Applications & Tools: Competition Between Indigenous and Introduced Species 342 14 Exploitation: Predation, Herbivory, Parasitism, and Disease 346 Concepts 347 Concept Discussion: Complex Interactions 347 Parasites and Pathogens That Manipulate Host Behavior 348 The Entangling of Exploitation with Competition 351 Concept Discussion: Exploitation and Abundance 351 An Herbivorous Stream Insect and Its Algal Food 352 An Introduced Cactus and an Herbivorous Moth 354 A Pathogenic Parasite, a Predator, and Its Prey 355 Concept Discussion: Dynamics 356 Cycles of Abundance in Snowshoe Hares and Their Predators 357 Experimental Test of Food and Predation Impacts 359 Population Cycles in Mathematical and Laboratory Models 360 Concept Discussion: Refuges 363 Refuges and Host Persistence in Laboratory and Mathematical Models 363 Exploited Organisms and Their Wide Variety of Refuges 364 Applications & Tools: Using Predators to Control a Parasite 369 15 Mutualism 374 Concepts 376 Concept Discussion: Plant Mutualisms 376 Plant Performance and Mycorrhizal Fungi 376 Ants and Bullshorn Acacia 379 A Temperate Plant Protection Mutualism 382 Concept Discussion: Coral Mutualisms 384 Zooxanthellae and Corals 384 A Coral Protection Mutualism 385 Concept Discussion: Evolution of Mutualism 388 Facultative Ant-Plant Protection Mutualisms 389 Applications & Tools: Mutualism and Humans 390 The Honeyguide 391 Guiding Behavior 391 Section V Communities and Ecosystems 16 Species Abundance and Diversity 397 Concepts 399 Concept Discussion: Species Abundance 399 The Lognormal Distribution 399 Concept Discussion: Species Diversity 400 A Quantitative Index of Species Diversity 401 Rank-Abundance Curves 401 Concept Discussion: Environmental Complexity 404 Forest Complexity and Bird Species Diversity 404 Niches, Heterogeneity, and the Diversity of Algae and Plants 405 The Niches of Algae and Terrestrial Plants 405 Complexity in Plant Environments 406 Soil and Topographic Heterogeneity and the Diversity of Tropical Forest Trees 407 Algal and Plant Species Diversity and Increased Nutrient Availability 408 Nitrogen Enrichment and Ectomycorrhizal Fungus Diversity 408 Concept Discussion: Disturbance and Diversity 409 The Nature of Equilibrium 409 The Nature and Sources of Disturbance 409 The Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis 410 Disturbance and Diversity in the Intertidal Zone 410 Disturbance and Diversity in Temperate Grasslands 411 Applications & Tools: Disturbance by Humans 412 Human Disturbance: An Ancient Feature of the Biosphere 413 Disturbance by Humans and the Diversity of Chalk Grasslands 414 17 Species Interactions and Community Structure 418 Concepts 419 Concept Discussion: Community Webs 419 Detailed Food Webs Reveal Great Complexity 420 Strong Interactions and Food Web Structure 422 Concept Discussion: Keystone Species 423 Food Web Structure and Species Diversity 423 Experimental Removal of Starfish 423 Consumers? Effects on Local Diversity 425 Fish as Keystone Species in River Food Webs 427 The Effects of Predation by Birds on Herbivory 429 Concept Discussion: Exotic Predators 432 Introduced Fish: Predators That Simplify Aquatic Food Webs 432 Concept Discussion: Mutualistic Keystones 434 A Cleaner Fish as a Keystone Species 434 Seed Dispersal Mutualists as Keystone Species 434 Applications & Tools: Humans as Keystone Species 435 The Empty Forest: Hunters and Tropical Rain Forest Animal Communities 435 Ants and Agriculture: Keystone Predators for Pest Control 436 18 Primary Production and Energy Flow 441 Concepts 443 Concept Discussion: Patterns of Terrestrial Primary Production 443 Actual Evapotranspiration and Terrestrial Primary Production 443 Soil Fertility and Terrestrial Primary Production 444 Concept Discussion: Patterns of Aquatic Primary Production 445 Patterns and Models 446 Whole Lake Experiments on Primary Production 446 Global Patterns of Marine Primary Production 447 Concept Discussion: Consumer Influences 448 Piscivores, Planktivores, and Lake Primary Production 449 Grazing by Large Mammals and Primary Production on the Serengeti 451 Concept Discussion: Trophic Levels 453 A Trophic Dynamic View of Ecosystems 453 Energy Flow in a Temperate Deciduous Forest 454 Applications & Tools: Using Stable Isotope Analysis to Trace Energy Flow Through Ecosystems 456 Stable Isotope Analysis 456 Trophic Levels of Tropical River Fish 456 Using Stable Isotopes to Identify Sources of Energy in a Salt Marsh 457 Food Habits of Prehistoric Human Populations 457 19 Nutrient Cycling and Retention 462 The Phosphorus Cycle 463 The Nitrogen Cycle 464 The Carbon Cycle 465 Concepts 466 Concept Discussion: Rates of Decomposition 466 Decomposition in Two Mediterranean Woodland Ecosystems 466 Decomposition in Two Temperate Forest Ecosystems 468 Decomposition in Aquatic Ecosystems 469 Concept Discussion: Organisms and Nutrients 472 Nutrient Cycling in Streams 472 Animals and Nutrient Cycling in Terrestrial Ecosystems 474 Plants and the Nutrient Dynamics of Ecosystems 475 Concept Discussion: Disturbance and Nutrients 476 Disturbance and Nutrient Loss from the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest 477 Flooding and Nutrient Export by Streams 478 Applications & Tools: Altering Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems 479 20 Succession and Stability 484 Concepts 486 Concept Discussion: Community Changes During Succession 486 Primary Succession at Glacier Bay 486 Secondary Succession in Temperate Forests 487 Succession in Rocky Intertidal Communities 488 Succession in Stream Communities 489 Concept Discussion: Ecosystem Changes During Succession 490 Ecosystem Changes at Glacier Bay 490 Four Million Years of Ecosystem Change 491 Recovery of Nutrient Retention Following Disturbance 493 Succession and Stream Ecosystem Properties 494 Concept Discussion: Mechanisms of Succession 495 Successional Mechanisms in the Rocky Intertidal Zone 496 Successional Mechanisms in Forests 498 Concept Discussion: Community and Ecosystem Stability 500 Some Definitions 500 Lessons from the Park Grass Experiment 501 Replicate Disturbances and Desert Stream Stability 501 Applications & Tools: Using Repeat Photography to Detect Long-Term Change 506 Section VI Large-Scale Ecology 21 Landscape Ecology 511 Concepts 513 Concept Discussion: Landscape Structure 513 The Structure of Six Landscapes in Ohio 513 The Fractal Geometry of Landscapes 515 Concept Discussion: Landscape Processes 516 Landscape Structure and the Dispersal of Small Mammals 517 Habitat Patch Size and Isolation and the Density of Butterfly Populations 518 Habitat Corridors and Movement of Organisms 519 Landscape Position and Lake Chemistry 520 Concept Discussion: Origins of Landscape Structure and Change 522 Geological Processes, Climate, and Landscape Structure 522 Organisms and Landscape Structure 525 Fire and the Structure of a Mediterranean Landscape 529 Applications & Tools: Restoring a Riverine Landscape 530 Riverine Restoration: The Kissimmee River 530 22 Geographic Ecology 536 Concepts 538 Concept Discussion: Area, Isolation, and Species Richness 538 Sampling Area and Number of Species 538 Island Area and Species Richness 538 Island Isolation and Species Richness 540 Concept Discussion: The Equilibrium Model of Island Biogeography 541 Species Turnover on Islands 543 Experimental Island Biogeography 544 Colonization of New Islands by Plants 545 Manipulating Island Area 546 Island Biogeography Update 546 Latitudinal Gradients in Species Richness 546 Area and Latitudinal Gradients in Species Richness 548 Continental Area and Species Richness 549 Concept Discussion: Historical and Regional Influences 550 Exceptional Patterns of Diversity 550 Historical and Regional Explanations 552 Applications & Tools: Global Positioning Systems, Remote Sensing, and Geographic Information Systems 554 Global Positioning Systems 554 Remote Sensing 554 Geographic Information Systems 556 23 Global Ecology 560 The Atmospheric Envelope and the Greenhouse Earth 561 Concepts 562 Concept Discussion: A Global System 563 The Historical Thread 563 El Ni?o Today 564 El Ni?o and Marine Populations 565 El Ni?o and the Great Salt Lake 567 El Ni?o and Terrestrial Populations in Australia 568 Concept Discussion: Human Activity and the Global Nitrogen Cycle 569 Concept Discussion: Changes in Land Cover 570 Tropical Deforestation 570 Concept Discussion: Human Influence on Atmospheric Composition 576 Depletion and Recovery of the Ozone Layer 578 The Future 579 Applications & Tools: Cooperative Research Networks for Global Ecology 579 Appendix A Abbreviations Used in This Text 584 Appendix B List of Chapter Concepts 586 Appendix C Statistical Tables 588 Glossary 592 References 598 Credits 607 Index 608
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SUBJECT REFERENCE 		577 M736 2008 (Browse shelf) Available CITU-CL-42334
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Includes bibliogrphical references and index.

Contents
Preface xi
1 Introduction:What Is Ecology? 1
Overview of Ecology 2
The Ecology of Forest Birds: Using Field Studies to Test Theory 3
The Ecology of Bumblebees: Contributions
of Field and Laboratory Studies 5
Forest Nutrient Budgets: Inventories and Large-Scale Experiments 6
Vegetation Change: Information from Pollen Records and Modeling 8
The Nature and Scope of Ecology 11
On the Net 12
Section I
Natural History
2 Life on Land 14
Terrestrial Biomes 16
Concepts 16
Concept Discussion: Large-Scale Patterns of Climatic Variation 17
Temperature, Atmospheric Circulation, and Precipitation 17
Climate Diagrams 18
Concept Discussion: Soil: The Foundation of Terrestrial Biomes 21
Concept Discussion: Natural History and Geography of Biomes 23
Tropical Rain Forest 23
Tropical Dry Forest 25
Tropical Savanna 28
Desert 30
Mediterranean Woodland and Shrubland 33
Temperate Grassland 35
Temperate Forest 37
Boreal Forest 39
Tundra 42
Mountains: Islands in the Sky 44
Applications & Tools: Climatic Variation and the Palmer Drought Severity Index
47
3 Life in Water 52
Concepts 53
Concept Discussion: The Hydrologic Cycle 53
Concept Discussion: The Natural History of Aquatic Environments 54
The Deep Blue Sea 54
Life in Shallow Marine Waters: Kelp Forests and Coral Gardens 59
Marine Shores: Life Between High and Low Tides 64
Estuaries, Salt Marshes, and Mangrove Forests 68
Rivers and Streams: Life Blood and Pulse of the Continents 72
Lakes: Small Seas 78
Applications & Tools: Biological Integrity/Assessing the Health of Aquatic
Systems 82
Number of Species and Species Composition 83
Trophic Composition 83
Fish Abundance and Condition 84
An Application 84
Section II
Individuals
4 Temperature Relations 89
Concepts 90
Concept Discussion: Microclimates 90
Altitude 91
Aspect 91
Vegetation 91
Color of the Ground 92
Presence of Boulders and Burrows 93
Aquatic Temperatures 93
Concept Discussion: Temperature and
Performance of Organisms 94
Temperature and Animal Performance 94
Extreme Temperatures and Photosynthesis 96
Temperature and Microbial Activity 98
Concept Discussion: Regulating Body Temperature 99
Balancing Heat Gain Against Heat Loss 99
Temperature Regulation by Plants 100
Temperature Regulation by Ectothermic Animals 102
Temperature Regulation by Endothermic Animals 105
Temperature Regulation by Thermogenic Plants 109
Concept Discussion: Surviving Extreme Temperatures 110
Inactivity 110
Reducing Metabolic Rate 111
Hibernation by a Tropical Species 111
Applications & Tools: Climatic Warming
and the Local Extinction of a Land Snail 113
5 Water Relations 117
Concepts 119
Concept Discussion: Water Availability 119
Water Content of Air 119
Water Movement in Aquatic Environments 120
Water Movement Between Soils and Plants 121
Concept Discussion: Water Regulation on Land 124
Water Acquisition by Animals 125
Water Acquisition by Plants 126
Water Conservation by Plants and Animals 128
Dissimilar Organisms with Similar Approaches to Desert Life 132
Two Arthropods with Opposite Approaches to Desert Life 133
Concept Discussion: Water and Salt Balance in Aquatic Environments 136
Marine Fish and Invertebrates 137
Freshwater Fish and Invertebrates 137
Applications & Tools: Using Stable Isotopes to Study Water Uptake by Plants
138
Stable Isotope Analysis 139
Using Stable Isotopes to Identify Plant Water Sources 140
6 Energy and Nutrient Relations 144
Concepts 145
Concept Discussion: Energy Sources 145
Using Light and CO2 146
Using Organic Molecules 150
Using Inorganic Molecules 154
Concept Discussion: Energy Limitation 157
Photon Flux and Photosynthetic Response Curves 157
Food Density and Animal Functional Response 158
Concept Discussion: Optimal Foraging Theory 159
Testing Optimal Foraging Theory 160
Optimal Foraging by Plants 161
Applications & Tools: Bioremediation/Using the Trophic Diversity of Bacteria to
Solve Environmental Problems 164
Removing a Mountain of Sewage 164
Leaking Underground Storage Tanks 164
Cyanide and Nitrates in Mine Spoils 165
7 Social Relations 170
Concepts 173
Concept Discussion: Mate Choice 173
Mate Choice and Sexual Selection in Guppies 173
Mate Choice Among Scorpionflies 178
Nonrandom Mating Among Wild Radish 180
Concept Discussion: Sociality 183
Cooperative Breeders 184
Applications & Tools: The Comparative Method/A Tool for Understanding Complex
Evolutionary Histories 188
Eusocial Species 189
Evolution of Eusociality 191
Section III
Population Ecology
8 Population Genetics and Natural Selection 197
Concepts 200
Concept Discussion: Variation Within Populations 200
Variation in Plant Populations 200
Variation in Animal Populations 202
Concept Discussion: Hardy-Weinberg 205
Calculating Gene Frequencies 206
Concept Discussion: The Process of Natural Selection 209
Stabilizing Selection 209
Directional Selection 210
Disruptive Selection 210
Concept Discussion: Evolution by Natural Selection 210
Evolution by Natural Selection and Genetic Variation 210
Adaptive Change in Colonizing Lizards 211
Rapid Adaptation by Soapberry Bugs to New Host Plants 214
Concept Discussion: Change Due to Chance 215
Evidence of Genetic Drift in Chihuahua Spruce 215
Genetic Variation in Island Populations 216
Genetic Diversity and Butterfly Extinctions 217
Applications & Tools: Estimating Genetic Variation in Populations 218
Transplant Experiments 218
Molecular Approaches to Genetic Variation 219
9 Population Distribution and Abundance 226
Concepts 228
Concept Discussion: Distribution Limits 228
Kangaroo Distributions and Climate 228
A Tiger Beetle of Cold Climates 229
Distributions of Plants Along a Moisture-Temperature Gradient 230
Distributions of Barnacles Along an Intertidal Exposure Gradient 231
Concept Discussion: Distribution Patterns 233
Distributions of Individuals on Small Scales 233
Distributions of Individuals on Large Scales 236
Bird Populations Across North America 238
Concept Discussion: Metapopulations 240
A Metapopulation of an Alpine Butterfly 240
Dispersal Within a Metapopulation of Lesser Kestrels 241
Concept Discussion: Organism Size and Population Density 242
Animal Size and Population Density 243
Plant Size and Population Density 244
Concept Discussion: Commonness and Rarity 244
Seven Forms of Rarity and One of Abundance 244
Applications & Tools: Estimating Abundance/From Whales to Sponges 247
Estimating Whale Population Size 247
The Relative Abundance of Corals, Algae, and Sponges 250
10 Population Dynamics 254
Concepts 256
Concept Discusssion: Patterns of Survival 256
Estimating Patterns of Survival 256
High Survival Among the Young 257
Constant Rates of Survival 258
High Mortality Among the Young 259
Three Types of Survivorship Curves 259
Concept Discussion: Age Distribution 260
Stable and Declining Tree Populations 260
A Dynamic Population in a Variable Climate 261
Concept Discussion: Rates of Population Change 262
Estimating Rates for an Annual Plant 262
Estimating Rates When Generations Overlap 264
Concept Discussion: Dispersal 266
Dispersal of Expanding Populations 266
Range Changes in Response to Climate Change 268
Dispersal in Response to Changing Food Supply 270
Dispersal in Rivers and Streams 270
Applications & Tools: Using Population
Dynamics to Assess the Impact of Pollutants 272
11 Population Growth 277
Concepts 278
Concept Discussion: Geometric and Exponential Population Growth 279
Geometric Growth 279
Exponential Growth 280
Exponential Growth in Nature 280
Concept Discussion: Logistic Population Growth 282
Concept Discussion: Limits to Population Growth 285
Environment and Birth and Death Among Galapagos Finches 285
Concept Discussion: Small and Fast Versus Large and Slow/The Intrinsic Rate of
Increase 289
Population Growth by Small Marine Invertebrates 289
Growth of a Whale Population 290
Applications & Tools: The Human Population 291
Distribution and Abundance 291
Population Dynamics 293
Population Growth 294
12 Life Histories 298
Concepts 299
Concept Discussion: Offspring Number Versus Size 300
Egg Size and Number in Fish 300
Seed Size and Number in Plants 302
Concept Discussion: Adult Survival and Reproductive Allocation 306
Life History Variation Among Species 306
Life History Variation Within Species 308
Concept Discussion: Life History Classification 311
r and K Selection 311
Plant Life Histories 312
Opportunistic, Equilibrium, and Periodic Life Histories 314
Reproductive Effort, Offspring Size, and Benefit-Cost Ratios 315
Applications & Tools: Using Life History Information to Restore Riparian Forests
317
Section IV
Interactions
13 Competition 323
Concepts 325
Concept Discussion: Resource Competition 325
Intraspecific Competition Among Herbaceous Plants 325
Intraspecific Competition Among Planthoppers 326
Interference Competition Among Terrestrial Isopods 327
Concept Discussion: Niches 327
The Feeding Niches of Gal pagos Finches 328
The Habitat Niche of a Salt Marsh Grass 330
Concept Discussion: Mathematical and Laboratory Models 330
Modeling Interspecific Competition 331
Laboratory Models of Competition 332
Concept Discussion: Competition and Niches 334
Niches and Competition Among Plants 334
Niche Overlap and Competition Between Barnacles 335
Competition and the Habitat of a Salt Marsh Grass 337
Competition and the Niches of Small Rodents 337
Character Displacement 338
Evidence for Competition in Nature 340
Applications & Tools: Competition Between Indigenous and Introduced Species
342
14 Exploitation: Predation, Herbivory, Parasitism, and Disease 346
Concepts 347
Concept Discussion: Complex Interactions 347
Parasites and Pathogens That Manipulate Host Behavior 348
The Entangling of Exploitation with Competition 351
Concept Discussion: Exploitation and Abundance 351
An Herbivorous Stream Insect and Its Algal Food 352
An Introduced Cactus and an Herbivorous Moth 354
A Pathogenic Parasite, a Predator, and Its Prey 355
Concept Discussion: Dynamics 356
Cycles of Abundance in Snowshoe Hares and Their Predators 357
Experimental Test of Food and Predation Impacts 359
Population Cycles in Mathematical and Laboratory Models 360
Concept Discussion: Refuges 363
Refuges and Host Persistence in Laboratory and Mathematical Models 363
Exploited Organisms and Their Wide Variety of Refuges 364
Applications & Tools: Using Predators to Control a Parasite 369
15 Mutualism 374
Concepts 376
Concept Discussion: Plant Mutualisms 376
Plant Performance and Mycorrhizal Fungi 376
Ants and Bullshorn Acacia 379
A Temperate Plant Protection Mutualism 382
Concept Discussion: Coral Mutualisms 384
Zooxanthellae and Corals 384
A Coral Protection Mutualism 385
Concept Discussion: Evolution of Mutualism 388
Facultative Ant-Plant Protection Mutualisms 389
Applications & Tools: Mutualism and Humans 390
The Honeyguide 391
Guiding Behavior 391
Section V
Communities and Ecosystems
16 Species Abundance and Diversity 397
Concepts 399
Concept Discussion: Species Abundance 399
The Lognormal Distribution 399
Concept Discussion: Species Diversity 400
A Quantitative Index of Species Diversity 401
Rank-Abundance Curves 401
Concept Discussion: Environmental Complexity 404
Forest Complexity and Bird Species Diversity 404
Niches, Heterogeneity, and the Diversity of Algae and Plants 405
The Niches of Algae and Terrestrial Plants 405
Complexity in Plant Environments 406
Soil and Topographic Heterogeneity and the Diversity of Tropical Forest Trees
407
Algal and Plant Species Diversity and Increased Nutrient Availability 408
Nitrogen Enrichment and Ectomycorrhizal Fungus Diversity 408
Concept Discussion: Disturbance and Diversity 409
The Nature of Equilibrium 409
The Nature and Sources of Disturbance 409
The Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis 410
Disturbance and Diversity in the Intertidal Zone 410
Disturbance and Diversity in Temperate Grasslands 411
Applications & Tools: Disturbance by Humans 412
Human Disturbance: An Ancient Feature of the Biosphere 413
Disturbance by Humans and the Diversity of Chalk Grasslands 414
17 Species Interactions and Community Structure 418
Concepts 419
Concept Discussion: Community Webs 419
Detailed Food Webs Reveal Great Complexity 420
Strong Interactions and Food Web Structure 422
Concept Discussion: Keystone Species 423
Food Web Structure and Species Diversity 423
Experimental Removal of Starfish 423
Consumers? Effects on Local Diversity 425
Fish as Keystone Species in River Food Webs 427
The Effects of Predation by Birds on Herbivory 429
Concept Discussion: Exotic Predators 432
Introduced Fish: Predators That Simplify Aquatic Food Webs 432
Concept Discussion: Mutualistic Keystones 434
A Cleaner Fish as a Keystone Species 434
Seed Dispersal Mutualists as Keystone Species 434
Applications & Tools: Humans as Keystone Species 435
The Empty Forest: Hunters and Tropical Rain Forest Animal Communities 435
Ants and Agriculture: Keystone Predators for Pest Control 436
18 Primary Production and Energy Flow 441
Concepts 443
Concept Discussion: Patterns of Terrestrial Primary Production 443
Actual Evapotranspiration and Terrestrial Primary Production 443
Soil Fertility and Terrestrial Primary Production 444
Concept Discussion: Patterns of Aquatic Primary Production 445
Patterns and Models 446
Whole Lake Experiments on Primary Production 446
Global Patterns of Marine Primary Production 447
Concept Discussion: Consumer Influences 448
Piscivores, Planktivores, and Lake Primary Production 449
Grazing by Large Mammals and Primary Production on the Serengeti 451
Concept Discussion: Trophic Levels 453
A Trophic Dynamic View of Ecosystems 453
Energy Flow in a Temperate Deciduous Forest 454
Applications & Tools: Using Stable Isotope Analysis to Trace Energy Flow Through
Ecosystems 456
Stable Isotope Analysis 456
Trophic Levels of Tropical River Fish 456
Using Stable Isotopes to Identify Sources of Energy in a Salt Marsh 457
Food Habits of Prehistoric Human Populations 457
19 Nutrient Cycling and Retention 462
The Phosphorus Cycle 463
The Nitrogen Cycle 464
The Carbon Cycle 465
Concepts 466
Concept Discussion: Rates of Decomposition 466
Decomposition in Two Mediterranean Woodland Ecosystems 466
Decomposition in Two Temperate Forest Ecosystems 468
Decomposition in Aquatic Ecosystems 469
Concept Discussion: Organisms and Nutrients 472
Nutrient Cycling in Streams 472
Animals and Nutrient Cycling
in Terrestrial Ecosystems 474
Plants and the Nutrient Dynamics of Ecosystems 475
Concept Discussion: Disturbance and Nutrients 476
Disturbance and Nutrient Loss from the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest 477
Flooding and Nutrient Export by Streams 478
Applications & Tools: Altering Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems 479
20 Succession and Stability 484
Concepts 486
Concept Discussion: Community Changes During Succession 486
Primary Succession at Glacier Bay 486
Secondary Succession in Temperate Forests 487
Succession in Rocky Intertidal Communities 488
Succession in Stream Communities 489
Concept Discussion: Ecosystem Changes During Succession 490
Ecosystem Changes at Glacier Bay 490
Four Million Years of Ecosystem Change 491
Recovery of Nutrient Retention Following Disturbance 493
Succession and Stream Ecosystem Properties 494
Concept Discussion: Mechanisms of Succession 495
Successional Mechanisms in the Rocky Intertidal Zone 496
Successional Mechanisms in Forests 498
Concept Discussion: Community and Ecosystem Stability 500
Some Definitions 500
Lessons from the Park Grass Experiment 501
Replicate Disturbances and Desert Stream Stability 501
Applications & Tools: Using Repeat Photography to Detect Long-Term Change 506
Section VI
Large-Scale Ecology
21 Landscape Ecology 511
Concepts 513
Concept Discussion: Landscape Structure 513
The Structure of Six Landscapes in Ohio 513
The Fractal Geometry of Landscapes 515
Concept Discussion: Landscape Processes 516
Landscape Structure and the Dispersal of Small Mammals 517
Habitat Patch Size and Isolation and the Density of Butterfly Populations 518
Habitat Corridors and Movement of Organisms 519
Landscape Position and Lake Chemistry 520
Concept Discussion: Origins of Landscape Structure and Change 522
Geological Processes, Climate, and Landscape Structure 522
Organisms and Landscape Structure 525
Fire and the Structure of a Mediterranean Landscape 529
Applications & Tools: Restoring a Riverine Landscape 530
Riverine Restoration: The Kissimmee River 530
22 Geographic Ecology 536
Concepts 538
Concept Discussion: Area, Isolation, and Species Richness 538
Sampling Area and Number of Species 538
Island Area and Species Richness 538
Island Isolation and Species Richness 540
Concept Discussion: The Equilibrium Model of Island Biogeography 541
Species Turnover on Islands 543
Experimental Island Biogeography 544
Colonization of New Islands by Plants 545
Manipulating Island Area 546
Island Biogeography Update 546
Latitudinal Gradients in Species Richness 546
Area and Latitudinal Gradients in Species Richness 548
Continental Area and Species Richness 549
Concept Discussion: Historical
and Regional Influences 550
Exceptional Patterns of Diversity 550
Historical and Regional Explanations 552
Applications & Tools: Global Positioning Systems, Remote Sensing, and Geographic
Information Systems 554
Global Positioning Systems 554
Remote Sensing 554
Geographic Information Systems 556
23 Global Ecology 560
The Atmospheric Envelope and the Greenhouse Earth 561
Concepts 562
Concept Discussion: A Global System 563
The Historical Thread 563
El Ni?o Today 564
El Ni?o and Marine Populations 565
El Ni?o and the Great Salt Lake 567
El Ni?o and Terrestrial Populations in Australia 568
Concept Discussion: Human Activity and the Global Nitrogen Cycle 569
Concept Discussion: Changes in Land Cover 570
Tropical Deforestation 570
Concept Discussion: Human Influence on Atmospheric Composition 576
Depletion and Recovery of the Ozone Layer 578
The Future 579
Applications & Tools: Cooperative Research Networks for Global Ecology 579
Appendix A Abbreviations Used in This Text 584
Appendix B List of Chapter Concepts 586
Appendix C Statistical Tables 588
Glossary 592
References 598
Credits 607
Index 608

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