Physical geology / Charles C. Plummer, Diane H. Carlson, David McGeary.

By: Plummer, Charles C [author]
Contributor(s): Carlson, Diane H [author] | McGeary, David [author]
Language: English Publisher: Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2007Description: xxi, 617, [34] pages : color illustrations ; 29 cm. mapsContent type: text Media type: unmediated Carrier type: volumeISBN: 0071107258; 9780071107891Subject(s): Geology | Physical geology -- TextbooksDDC classification: 551
Contents:
Contents iv Preface xii Meet the Authors xix Introducing Geology and an Overview of Important Concepts 3 Who Needs Geology? 4 Supplying Things We Need 4 Protecting the Environment 5 Avoiding Geologic Hazards 5 Understanding Our Surroundings 8 Earth Systems 9 An Overview of Physical Geology-Important Concepts 10 Internal Processes: How the Earth's Internal Heat Engine Works 12 Earth's Interior 12 The Theory of Plate Tectonics 13 Surficial Processes: The Earth's External Heat Engine 16 Geologic Time 17 SUMMARY 21 Atoms, Elements, and Minerals 25 Introduction 26 Atoms and Elements 27 Chemical Activity 30 Ions 30 Chemical Composition of the Earth's Crust 30 Crystallinity 32 The Silicon-Oxygen Tetrahedron 33 Nonsilicate Minerals 35 Minerals 35 Crystalline Solid 37 Geologic Processes 37 Specific Chemical Composition 37 The Important Minerals 37 The Physical Properties of Minerals 40 Color 40 Streak 40 Luster 40 Hardness 40 External Crystal Form 41 Cleavage 43 Fracture 44 Specific Gravity 45 Special Properties 46 Other Properties 46 Chemical Tests 47 SUMMARY 47 Igneous Rocks, Intrusive Activity, and the Origin of Igneous Rocks 51 The Rock Cycle 52 A Plate-Tectonic Example 53 Igneous Rocks 53 Igneous Rock Textures 55 Identification of Igneous Rocks 57 Varieties of Granite 58 Chemistry of Igneous Rocks 58 Intrusive Bodies 60 Shallow Intrusive Structures 60 Intrusives That Crystallize at Depth 61 Abundance and Distribution of Plutonic Rocks 63 How Magma Forms 64 Heat for Melting Rock 64 Factors That Control Melting Temperatures 64 How Magmas of Different Compositions Evolve 66 Sequence of Crystallization and Melting 66 Differentiation 67 Partial Melting 68 Assimilation 68 Mixing of Magmas 69 Explaining Igneous Activity by Plate Tectonics 69 Igneous Processes at Divergent Boundaries 69 Intraplate Igneous Activity 69 Igneous Processes at Convergent Boundaries 70 SUMMARY 73 Volcanism and Extrusive Rocks 77 Introduction 78 Living with Volcanoes 81 Supernatural Beliefs 81 The Growth of an Island 81 Geothermal Energy 81 Effect on Climate 81 Volcanic Catastrophes 81 Eruptive Violence and Physical Characteristics of Lava 84 Extrusive Rocks and Gases 85 Scientific Investigation of Volcanism 85 Gases 85 Extrusive Rocks 86 Composition 86 Extrusive Textures 87 Types of Volcanoes 89 Shield Volcanoes 90 Cinder Cones 92 Composite Volcanoes 94 Volcanic Domes 96 Lava Floods 99 Submarine Eruptions 100 Pillow Basalts 100 SUMMARY 102 Weathering and Soil 107 Weathering, Erosion, and Transportation 108 Weathering and Earth Systems 108 Solar System 108 Atmosphere 109 Hydrosphere 109 Biosphere 109 How Weathering Alters Rock 109 Effects of Weathering 109 Mechanical Weathering 111 Frost Action 111 Pressure Release 111 Other Processes 111 Chemical Weathering 113 Role of Oxygen 114 Role of Acids 114 Solution Weathering 114 Chemical Weathering of Feldspar 116 Chemical Weathering of Other Minerals 116 Weathering Products 118 Weathering and Climate 118 Soil 118 Soil Horizons 119 Soil Classification 119 Residual and Transported Soils 120 Soils, Parent Material, Time, and Slope 120 Organic Activity 122 Soils and Climate 122 Buried Soils 124 SUMMARY 124 Sediment and Sedimentary Rocks 127 Sediment 129 Transportation 129 Deposition 130 Preservation 131 Lithification 132 Types of Sedimentary Rocks 133 Clastic Rocks 133 Breccia and Conglomerate 133 Sandstone 135 The Fine-Grained Rocks 136 Chemical Sedimentary Rocks 137 Carbonate Rocks 137 Chert 141 Evaporites 141 Organic Sedimentary Rocks 142 Coal 142 The Origin of Oil and Gas 142 Sedimentary Structures 142 Formations 147 Interpretation of Sedimentary Rocks 148 Source Area 148 Environment of Deposition 150 Plate Tectonics and Sedimentary Rocks 152 SUMMARY 153 Metamorphism, Metamorphic Rocks, and Hydrothermal Rocks 157 Introduction 158 Factors Controlling the Characteristics of Metamorphic Rocks 159 Composition of the Parent Rock 160 Temperature 160 Pressure 160 Fluids 162 Time 162 Classification of Metamorphic Rocks 163 Types of Metamorphism 163 Contact Metamorphism 163 Regional Metamorphism 165 Plate Tectonics and Metamorphism 169 Hydrothermal Processes 172 Hydrothermal Activity at Divergent Plate Boundaries 172 Water at Convergent Boundaries 173 Metasomatism 173 Hydrothermal Rocks and Minerals 174 SUMMARY 176 Time and Geology 179 The Key to the Past 180 Relative Time 181 Principles Used to Determine Relative Age 181 Unconformities 186 Correlation 187 The Standard Geologic Time Scale 191 Numerical Age 193 Isotopic Dating 193 Uses of Isotopic Dating 196 Combining Relative and Numerical Ages 198 Age of the Earth 199 Comprehending Geologic Time 201 SUMMARY 201 Mass Wasting 205 Classification of Mass Wasting 206 Rate of Movement 206 Type of Material 206 Type of Movement 206 Controlling Factors in Mass Wasting 208 Gravity 210 Water 210 Triggering Mechanisms 211 Common Types of Mass Wasting 212 Creep 212 Debris Flow 213 Rockfalls and Rockslides 217 Underwater Slides 220 Preventing Landslides 221 Preventing Mass Wasting of Debris 221 Preventing Rockfalls and Rockslides on Highways 222 SUMMARY 224 Streams and Floods 227 Earth Systems-The Hydrologic Cycle 229 Channel Flow and Sheet Flow 229 Drainage Basins 230 Drainage Patterns 231 Factors Affecting Stream Erosion and Deposition 231 Velocity 232 Gradient 233 Channel Shape and Roughness 233 Discharge 234 Stream Erosion 235 Stream Transportation of Sediment 236 Stream Deposition 237 Bars 237 Braided Streams 240 Meandering Streams and Point Bars 241 Flood Plains 243 Deltas 243 Alluvial Fans 246 Kaibab Limestone Toroweap Formation Coconino Sandstone Hermit Shale Supai Formation Redwall Limestone Hermit Shale Supai Formation Redwall Limestone Flooding 246 Urban Flooding 247 Flash Floods 247 Controlling Floods 251 The Great Flood of 1993 251 Stream Valley Development 253 Downcutting and Base Level 253 The Concept of a Graded Stream 253 Lateral Erosion 255 Headward Erosion 255 Stream Terraces 256 Incised Meanders 257 Superposed Streams 257 SUMMARY 259 Ground Water 263 Introduction 264 Porosity and Permeability 264 The Water Table 265 The Movement of Ground Water 267 Aquifers 268 Wells 269 Springs and Streams 270 Contamination of Ground Water 272 Balancing Withdrawal and Recharge 277 Effects of Ground-Water Action 277 Caves, Sinkholes, and Karst Topography 277 Other Effects 280 Hot Water Underground 281 Geothermal Energy 282 SUMMARY 283 Glaciers and Glaciation 287 The Theory of Glacial Ages 288 Glaciers-What They Are, How They Form and Move 289 Distribution of Glaciers 289 Types of Glaciers 289 Formation and Growth of Glaciers 291 Movement of Valley Glaciers 292 Movement of Ice Sheets 296 Glacial Erosion 298 Erosional Landscapes Associated with Alpine Glaciation 298 Erosional Landscapes Associated with Continental Glaciation 301 Glacial Deposition 302 Moraines 303 Outwash 305 Glacial Lakes and Varves 306 Effects of Past Glaciation 308 The Glacial Ages 308 Direct Effects of Past Glaciation in North America 309 Indirect Effects of Past Glaciation 310 Evidence for Older Glaciation 311 SUMMARY 313 Deserts and Wind Action 317 Distribution of Deserts 318 Some Characteristics of Deserts 319 Desert Features in the Southwestern United States 322 Wind Action 326 Wind Erosion and Transportation 326 Wind Deposition 328 SUMMARY 330 Waves, Beaches, and Coasts 339 Introduction 340 Water Waves 340 Surf 341 Near-shore Circulation 342 Wave Refraction 342 Longshore Currents 342 Rip Currents 342 Beaches 344 Longshore Drift of Sediment 345 Human Interference with Sand Drift 346 Sources of Sand on Beaches 348 Coasts and Coastal Features 348 Erosional Coasts 349 Depositional Coasts 350 Drowned Coasts 351 Uplifted Coasts 352 The Biosphere and Coasts 353 SUMMARY 356 Geologic Structures 359 Introduction 360 Tectonic Forces at Work 360 Stress and Strain in the Earth's Crust 360 Behavior of Rocks to Stress and Strain 361 Present Deformation of the Crust 362 Structures as a Record of the Geologic Past 362 Geologic Maps and Field Methods 362 Folds 365 Geometry of Folds 365 Interpreting Folds 368 Fractures in Rock 369 Joints 369 Faults 370 SUMMARY 379 Earthquakes 383 Introduction 384 Causes of Earthquakes 386 Seismic Waves 387 Body Waves 388 Surface Waves 389 Locating and Measuring Earthquakes 389 Determining the Location of an Earthquake 389 Measuring the Size of an Earthquake 392 Location and Size of Earthquakes in the United States 395 Effects of Earthquakes 395 Tsunami 399 World Distribution of Earthquakes 403 First-Motion Studies of Earthquakes 403 Earthquakes and Plate Tectonics 405 Earthquakes at Plate Boundaries 405 Subduction Angle 407 Earthquake Prediction and Seismic Risk 407 SUMMARY 412 Earth's Interior and Geophysical Properties 417 Introduction 418 Evidence from Seismic Waves 418 Earth's Internal Structure 421 The Crust 421 The Mantle 422 The Core 424 Isostasy 428 Gravity Measurements 429 Earth's Magnetic Field 432 Magnetic Reversals 433 Magnetic Anomalies 434 Heat Within the Earth 437 Geothermal Gradient 437 Heat Flow 438 SUMMARY 439 The Sea Floor 443 Origin of the Ocean 444 Methods of Studying the Ocean Floor 444 Features of the Sea Floor 446 Continental Shelves and Continental Slopes 446 Submarine Canyons 448 Turbidity Currents 449 Passive Continental Margins 450 The Continental Rise 451 Abyssal Plains 451 Active Continental Margins 452 Oceanic Trenches 452 The Mid-Oceanic Ridge 453 Geologic Activity on the Ridge 453 Biologic Activity on the Ridge 455 Fracture Zones 455 Seamounts, Guyots, and Aseismic Ridges 456 Reefs 457 Sediments of the Sea Floor 459 Oceanic Crust and Ophiolites 459 The Age of the Sea Floor 462 The Sea Floor and Plate Tectonics 462 SUMMARY 462 Plate Tectonics 467 The Early Case for Continental Drift 469 Skepticism About Continental Drift 472 Paleomagnetism and the Revival of Continental Drift 472 Recent Evidence for Continental Drift 473 History of Continental Positions 474 Seafloor Spreading 474 Hess's Driving Force 474 Explanations 475 Plates and Plate Motion 476 How Do We Know That Plates Move? 477 Marine Magnetic Anomalies 477 Another Test: Fracture Zones and Transform Faults 480 Measuring Plate Motion Directly 480 Divergent Plate Boundaries 481 Transform Boundaries 484 Convergent Plate Boundaries 485 Ocean-Ocean Convergence 486 Ocean-Continent Convergence 487 Continent-Continent Convergence 489 Backarc Spreading 490 The Motion of Plate Boundaries 490 Plate Size 491 The Attractiveness of Plate Tectonics 491 What Causes Plate Motions? 492 Mantle Plumes and Hot Spots 494 The Relationship Between Plate Tectonics and Ore Deposits 497 A Final Note 498 SUMMARY 499 Mountain Belts and the Continental Crust 503 Characteristics of Major Mountain Belts 506 Size and Alignment 506 Ages of Mountain Belts and Continents 506 Thickness and Characteristics of Rock Layers 508 Patterns of Folding and Faulting 508 Metamorphism and Plutonism 510 Normal Faulting 510 Thickness and Density of Rocks 510 Features of Active Mountain Ranges 511 The Evolution of a Mountain Belt 511 The Accumulation Stage 511 The Orogenic Stage 512 The Uplift and Block-Faulting Stage 515 The Growth of Continents 520 Displaced Terranes 520 SUMMARY 522 Geologic Resources 525 Types of Resources 526 Resources and Reserves 527 Energy Use 527 Oil and Natural Gas 528 The Occurrence of Oil and Gas 528 Recovering the Oil 529 How Much Petroleum Do We Have Left? 530 Heavy Crude and Oil Sands 530 Oil Shale 532 Coal 532 Varieties of Coal 532 Occurrence of Coal 533 Environmental Effects 535 Reserves and Resources 535 Uranium 535 Alternative Sources of Energy 536 Metals and Ores 536 Origin of Metallic Ore Deposits 536 Ores Associated with Igneous Rocks 537 Ores Formed by Surface Processes 538 Mining 539 Environmental Effects 539 Some Important Minerals 540 Iron 540 Copper 541 Aluminum 541 Lead 541 Zinc 542 Silver 542 Gold 542 Other Metals 543 Nonmetallic Resources 543 Construction Materials 543 Fertilizers and Evaporites 544 Other Nonmetallics 544 Some Future Trends 544 The Human Perspective 544 SUMMARY 545 The Earth's Companions 549 The Earth in Space 550 The Sun 550 The Solar System 550 The Milky Way and the Universe 554 Origin of the Planets 554 The Solar Nebula 554 Formation of the Planets 556 Formation of Moons 557 Final Stages of Planet Formation 557 Formation of Atmospheres 557 Other Planetary Systems 557 Portraits of the Planets 558 Our Moon 558 Description of the Moon 559 Structure of the Moon 562 Origin and History of the Moon 562 Mercury 564 Venus 565 Mars 566 Why Are the Terrestrial Planets So Different? 570 Jupiter 571 Saturn 573 Uranus 574 Neptune 574 Pluto 575 Minor Objects of the Solar System 575 Meteors and Meteorites 575 Asteroids 576 Comets 576 Giant Impacts 578 Giant Meteor Impacts 578 SUMMARY 579 Appendixes A-G A-1 Glossary G-1 Index I-1
Tags from this library: No tags from this library for this title. Log in to add tags.
    Average rating: 0.0 (0 votes)
Item type Current location Home library Call number Status Date due Barcode Item holds
BOOK BOOK COLLEGE LIBRARY
COLLEGE LIBRARY
SUBJECT REFERENCE 		551 P736 2007 (Browse shelf) Available CITU-CL-33586
Total holds: 0

Contents iv
Preface xii
Meet the Authors xix
Introducing Geology and an Overview of Important Concepts 3
Who Needs Geology? 4
Supplying Things We Need 4
Protecting the Environment 5
Avoiding Geologic Hazards 5
Understanding Our Surroundings 8
Earth Systems 9
An Overview of Physical Geology-Important Concepts 10
Internal Processes: How the Earth's Internal Heat Engine Works 12
Earth's Interior 12
The Theory of Plate Tectonics 13
Surficial Processes: The Earth's External Heat Engine 16
Geologic Time 17
SUMMARY 21
Atoms, Elements, and Minerals 25
Introduction 26
Atoms and Elements 27
Chemical Activity 30
Ions 30
Chemical Composition of the Earth's Crust 30
Crystallinity 32
The Silicon-Oxygen Tetrahedron 33
Nonsilicate Minerals 35
Minerals 35
Crystalline Solid 37
Geologic Processes 37
Specific Chemical Composition 37
The Important Minerals 37
The Physical Properties of Minerals 40
Color 40
Streak 40
Luster 40
Hardness 40
External Crystal Form 41
Cleavage 43
Fracture 44
Specific Gravity 45
Special Properties 46
Other Properties 46
Chemical Tests 47
SUMMARY 47
Igneous Rocks, Intrusive Activity, and the Origin of Igneous Rocks 51
The Rock Cycle 52
A Plate-Tectonic Example 53
Igneous Rocks 53
Igneous Rock Textures 55
Identification of Igneous Rocks 57
Varieties of Granite 58
Chemistry of Igneous Rocks 58
Intrusive Bodies 60
Shallow Intrusive Structures 60
Intrusives That Crystallize at Depth 61
Abundance and Distribution of Plutonic Rocks 63
How Magma Forms 64
Heat for Melting Rock 64
Factors That Control Melting Temperatures 64
How Magmas of Different Compositions Evolve 66
Sequence of Crystallization and Melting 66
Differentiation 67
Partial Melting 68
Assimilation 68
Mixing of Magmas 69
Explaining Igneous Activity by Plate Tectonics 69
Igneous Processes at Divergent Boundaries 69
Intraplate Igneous Activity 69
Igneous Processes at Convergent Boundaries 70
SUMMARY 73
Volcanism and Extrusive Rocks 77
Introduction 78
Living with Volcanoes 81
Supernatural Beliefs 81
The Growth of an Island 81
Geothermal Energy 81
Effect on Climate 81
Volcanic Catastrophes 81
Eruptive Violence and Physical Characteristics of Lava 84
Extrusive Rocks and Gases 85
Scientific Investigation of Volcanism 85
Gases 85
Extrusive Rocks 86
Composition 86
Extrusive Textures 87
Types of Volcanoes 89
Shield Volcanoes 90
Cinder Cones 92
Composite Volcanoes 94
Volcanic Domes 96
Lava Floods 99
Submarine Eruptions 100
Pillow Basalts 100
SUMMARY 102
Weathering and Soil 107
Weathering, Erosion, and Transportation 108
Weathering and Earth Systems 108
Solar System 108
Atmosphere 109
Hydrosphere 109
Biosphere 109
How Weathering Alters Rock 109
Effects of Weathering 109
Mechanical Weathering 111
Frost Action 111
Pressure Release 111
Other Processes 111
Chemical Weathering 113
Role of Oxygen 114
Role of Acids 114
Solution Weathering 114
Chemical Weathering of Feldspar 116
Chemical Weathering of Other Minerals 116
Weathering Products 118
Weathering and Climate 118
Soil 118
Soil Horizons 119
Soil Classification 119
Residual and Transported Soils 120
Soils, Parent Material, Time, and Slope 120
Organic Activity 122
Soils and Climate 122
Buried Soils 124
SUMMARY 124
Sediment and Sedimentary Rocks 127
Sediment 129
Transportation 129
Deposition 130
Preservation 131
Lithification 132
Types of Sedimentary Rocks 133
Clastic Rocks 133
Breccia and Conglomerate 133
Sandstone 135
The Fine-Grained Rocks 136
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks 137
Carbonate Rocks 137
Chert 141
Evaporites 141
Organic Sedimentary Rocks 142
Coal 142
The Origin of Oil and Gas 142
Sedimentary Structures 142
Formations 147
Interpretation of Sedimentary Rocks 148
Source Area 148
Environment of Deposition 150
Plate Tectonics and Sedimentary Rocks 152
SUMMARY 153
Metamorphism, Metamorphic Rocks, and Hydrothermal Rocks 157
Introduction 158
Factors Controlling the Characteristics of Metamorphic Rocks 159
Composition of the Parent Rock 160
Temperature 160
Pressure 160
Fluids 162
Time 162
Classification of Metamorphic Rocks 163
Types of Metamorphism 163
Contact Metamorphism 163
Regional Metamorphism 165
Plate Tectonics and Metamorphism 169
Hydrothermal Processes 172
Hydrothermal Activity at Divergent Plate Boundaries 172
Water at Convergent Boundaries 173
Metasomatism 173
Hydrothermal Rocks and Minerals 174
SUMMARY 176
Time and Geology 179
The Key to the Past 180
Relative Time 181
Principles Used to Determine Relative Age 181
Unconformities 186
Correlation 187
The Standard Geologic Time Scale 191
Numerical Age 193
Isotopic Dating 193
Uses of Isotopic Dating 196
Combining Relative and Numerical Ages 198
Age of the Earth 199
Comprehending Geologic Time 201
SUMMARY 201
Mass Wasting 205
Classification of Mass Wasting 206
Rate of Movement 206
Type of Material 206
Type of Movement 206
Controlling Factors in Mass Wasting 208
Gravity 210
Water 210
Triggering Mechanisms 211
Common Types of Mass Wasting 212
Creep 212
Debris Flow 213
Rockfalls and Rockslides 217
Underwater Slides 220
Preventing Landslides 221
Preventing Mass Wasting of Debris 221
Preventing Rockfalls and Rockslides on Highways 222
SUMMARY 224
Streams and Floods 227
Earth Systems-The Hydrologic Cycle 229
Channel Flow and Sheet Flow 229
Drainage Basins 230
Drainage Patterns 231
Factors Affecting Stream Erosion and Deposition 231
Velocity 232
Gradient 233
Channel Shape and Roughness 233
Discharge 234
Stream Erosion 235
Stream Transportation of Sediment 236
Stream Deposition 237
Bars 237
Braided Streams 240
Meandering Streams and Point Bars 241
Flood Plains 243
Deltas 243
Alluvial Fans 246
Kaibab Limestone
Toroweap Formation
Coconino Sandstone
Hermit Shale
Supai Formation
Redwall Limestone
Hermit Shale
Supai Formation
Redwall Limestone
Flooding 246
Urban Flooding 247
Flash Floods 247
Controlling Floods 251
The Great Flood of 1993 251
Stream Valley Development 253
Downcutting and Base Level 253
The Concept of a Graded Stream 253
Lateral Erosion 255
Headward Erosion 255
Stream Terraces 256
Incised Meanders 257
Superposed Streams 257
SUMMARY 259
Ground Water 263
Introduction 264
Porosity and Permeability 264
The Water Table 265
The Movement of Ground Water 267
Aquifers 268
Wells 269
Springs and Streams 270
Contamination of Ground Water 272
Balancing Withdrawal and Recharge 277
Effects of Ground-Water Action 277
Caves, Sinkholes, and Karst Topography 277
Other Effects 280
Hot Water Underground 281
Geothermal Energy 282
SUMMARY 283
Glaciers and Glaciation 287
The Theory of Glacial Ages 288
Glaciers-What They Are, How They Form and Move 289
Distribution of Glaciers 289
Types of Glaciers 289
Formation and Growth of Glaciers 291
Movement of Valley Glaciers 292
Movement of Ice Sheets 296
Glacial Erosion 298
Erosional Landscapes Associated with Alpine Glaciation 298
Erosional Landscapes Associated with Continental Glaciation 301
Glacial Deposition 302
Moraines 303
Outwash 305
Glacial Lakes and Varves 306
Effects of Past Glaciation 308
The Glacial Ages 308
Direct Effects of Past Glaciation in North America 309
Indirect Effects of Past Glaciation 310
Evidence for Older Glaciation 311
SUMMARY 313
Deserts and Wind Action 317
Distribution of Deserts 318
Some Characteristics of Deserts 319
Desert Features in the Southwestern United States 322
Wind Action 326
Wind Erosion and Transportation 326
Wind Deposition 328
SUMMARY 330
Waves, Beaches, and Coasts 339
Introduction 340
Water Waves 340
Surf 341
Near-shore Circulation 342
Wave Refraction 342
Longshore Currents 342
Rip Currents 342
Beaches 344
Longshore Drift of Sediment 345
Human Interference with Sand Drift 346
Sources of Sand on Beaches 348
Coasts and Coastal Features 348
Erosional Coasts 349
Depositional Coasts 350
Drowned Coasts 351
Uplifted Coasts 352
The Biosphere and Coasts 353
SUMMARY 356
Geologic Structures 359
Introduction 360
Tectonic Forces at Work 360
Stress and Strain in the Earth's Crust 360
Behavior of Rocks to Stress and Strain 361
Present Deformation of the Crust 362
Structures as a Record of the Geologic Past 362
Geologic Maps and Field Methods 362
Folds 365
Geometry of Folds 365
Interpreting Folds 368
Fractures in Rock 369
Joints 369
Faults 370
SUMMARY 379
Earthquakes 383
Introduction 384
Causes of Earthquakes 386
Seismic Waves 387
Body Waves 388
Surface Waves 389
Locating and Measuring Earthquakes 389
Determining the Location of an Earthquake 389
Measuring the Size of an Earthquake 392
Location and Size of Earthquakes in the United States 395
Effects of Earthquakes 395
Tsunami 399
World Distribution of Earthquakes 403
First-Motion Studies of Earthquakes 403
Earthquakes and Plate Tectonics 405
Earthquakes at Plate Boundaries 405
Subduction Angle 407
Earthquake Prediction and Seismic Risk 407
SUMMARY 412
Earth's Interior and Geophysical Properties 417
Introduction 418
Evidence from Seismic Waves 418
Earth's Internal Structure 421
The Crust 421
The Mantle 422
The Core 424
Isostasy 428
Gravity Measurements 429
Earth's Magnetic Field 432
Magnetic Reversals 433
Magnetic Anomalies 434
Heat Within the Earth 437
Geothermal Gradient 437
Heat Flow 438
SUMMARY 439
The Sea Floor 443
Origin of the Ocean 444
Methods of Studying the Ocean Floor 444
Features of the Sea Floor 446
Continental Shelves and Continental Slopes 446
Submarine Canyons 448
Turbidity Currents 449
Passive Continental Margins 450
The Continental Rise 451
Abyssal Plains 451
Active Continental Margins 452
Oceanic Trenches 452
The Mid-Oceanic Ridge 453
Geologic Activity on the Ridge 453
Biologic Activity on the Ridge 455
Fracture Zones 455
Seamounts, Guyots, and Aseismic Ridges 456
Reefs 457
Sediments of the Sea Floor 459
Oceanic Crust and Ophiolites 459
The Age of the Sea Floor 462
The Sea Floor and Plate Tectonics 462
SUMMARY 462
Plate Tectonics 467
The Early Case for Continental Drift 469
Skepticism About Continental Drift 472
Paleomagnetism and the Revival of Continental Drift 472
Recent Evidence for Continental Drift 473
History of Continental Positions 474
Seafloor Spreading 474
Hess's Driving Force 474
Explanations 475
Plates and Plate Motion 476
How Do We Know That Plates Move? 477
Marine Magnetic Anomalies 477
Another Test: Fracture Zones and Transform Faults 480
Measuring Plate Motion Directly 480
Divergent Plate Boundaries 481
Transform Boundaries 484
Convergent Plate Boundaries 485
Ocean-Ocean Convergence 486
Ocean-Continent Convergence 487
Continent-Continent Convergence 489
Backarc Spreading 490
The Motion of Plate Boundaries 490
Plate Size 491
The Attractiveness of Plate Tectonics 491
What Causes Plate Motions? 492
Mantle Plumes and Hot Spots 494
The Relationship Between Plate Tectonics and Ore Deposits 497
A Final Note 498
SUMMARY 499
Mountain Belts and the Continental Crust 503
Characteristics of Major Mountain Belts 506
Size and Alignment 506
Ages of Mountain Belts and Continents 506
Thickness and Characteristics of Rock Layers 508
Patterns of Folding and Faulting 508
Metamorphism and Plutonism 510
Normal Faulting 510
Thickness and Density of Rocks 510
Features of Active Mountain Ranges 511
The Evolution of a Mountain Belt 511
The Accumulation Stage 511
The Orogenic Stage 512
The Uplift and Block-Faulting Stage 515
The Growth of Continents 520
Displaced Terranes 520
SUMMARY 522
Geologic Resources 525
Types of Resources 526
Resources and Reserves 527
Energy Use 527
Oil and Natural Gas 528
The Occurrence of Oil and Gas 528
Recovering the Oil 529
How Much Petroleum Do We Have Left? 530
Heavy Crude and Oil Sands 530
Oil Shale 532
Coal 532
Varieties of Coal 532
Occurrence of Coal 533
Environmental Effects 535
Reserves and Resources 535
Uranium 535
Alternative Sources of Energy 536
Metals and Ores 536
Origin of Metallic Ore Deposits 536
Ores Associated with Igneous Rocks 537
Ores Formed by Surface Processes 538
Mining 539
Environmental Effects 539
Some Important Minerals 540
Iron 540
Copper 541
Aluminum 541
Lead 541
Zinc 542
Silver 542
Gold 542
Other Metals 543
Nonmetallic Resources 543
Construction Materials 543
Fertilizers and Evaporites 544
Other Nonmetallics 544
Some Future Trends 544
The Human Perspective 544
SUMMARY 545
The Earth's Companions 549
The Earth in Space 550
The Sun 550
The Solar System 550
The Milky Way and the Universe 554
Origin of the Planets 554
The Solar Nebula 554
Formation of the Planets 556
Formation of Moons 557
Final Stages of Planet Formation 557
Formation of Atmospheres 557
Other Planetary Systems 557
Portraits of the Planets 558
Our Moon 558
Description of the Moon 559
Structure of the Moon 562
Origin and History of the Moon 562
Mercury 564
Venus 565
Mars 566
Why Are the Terrestrial Planets So Different? 570
Jupiter 571
Saturn 573
Uranus 574
Neptune 574
Pluto 575
Minor Objects of the Solar System 575
Meteors and Meteorites 575
Asteroids 576
Comets 576
Giant Impacts 578
Giant Meteor Impacts 578
SUMMARY 579
Appendixes A-G A-1
Glossary G-1
Index I-1

There are no comments for this item.

to post a comment.