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DETAILED CONTENTS<br/>Summary List of Special Features: <br/>Chemical Connections; Tools of the Laboratory; Galleries; Animations; and Margin <br/>Notes xiv<br/>About the Author and Consultants xvii<br/>Preface xix<br/>Guided Tour xxii<br/>Acknowledgments xxix<br/>A Note to the Student: How to Do Well in This Course xxxii<br/>Keys to the Study of Chemistry 1<br/>1.1 Some Fundamental Definitions 3<br/>The Properties of Matter 3<br/>The Three States of Matter 4<br/>The Central Theme in Chemistry 6<br/>The Importance of Energy in the Study of Matter 6<br/>1.2 Chemical Arts and the Origins of Modern Chemistry 8<br/>Prechemical Traditions 8<br/>The Phlogiston Fiasco and the Impact of Lavoisier 10<br/>1.3 The Scientific Approach: Developing a Model 11<br/>1.4 Chemical Problem Solving 13<br/>Units and Conversion Factors in Calculations 13<br/>A Systematic Approach to Solving Chemistry Problems 15<br/>1.5 Measurement in Scientific Study 17<br/>General Features of SI Units 17<br/>Some Important SI Units in Chemistry 18<br/>1.6 Uncertainty in Measurement: Significant Figures 27<br/>Determining Which Digits Are Significant 28<br/>Working with Significant Figures in Calculations 28<br/>Precision, Accuracy, and Instrument Calibration 31<br/>Chemical Connections <br/>CHEMISTRY PROBLEM SOLVING IN THE REAL WORLD 32<br/>Chapter Perspective 33 <br/>For Review and Reference 34 <br/>Problems 35<br/>The Components of Matter 40<br/>2.1 Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures: An Atomic Overview 41<br/>2.2 The Observations That Led to an Atomic View of Matter 43<br/>Mass Conservation 43<br/>Definite Composition 44<br/>Multiple Proportions 45<br/>2.3 Dalton's Atomic Theory 46<br/>Postulates of the Atomic Theory 46<br/>How the Theory Explains the Mass Laws 46<br/>The Relative Masses of Atoms 47<br/>2.4 The Observations That Led to the Nuclear Atom Model 48<br/>Discovery of the Electron and Its Properties 48<br/>Discovery of the Atomic Nucleus 50<br/>2.5 The Atomic Theory Today 51<br/>Structure of the Atom 51<br/>Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Atomic Symbol 52<br/>Isotopes and Atomic Masses of the Elements 52<br/>Tools of the Laboratory MASS SPECTROMETRY 54<br/>A Modern Reassessment of the Atomic Theory 55<br/>2.6 Elements: A First Look at the Periodic Table 56<br/>2.7 Compounds: Introduction to Bonding 59<br/>The Formation of Ionic Compounds 59<br/>The Formation of Covalent Compounds 62<br/>Polyatomic Ions: Covalent Bonds Within Ions 63<br/>2.8 Compounds: Formulas, Names, and Masses 63<br/>Types of Chemical Formulas 64<br/>Some Advice About Learning Names and Formulas 64<br/>Names and Formulas of Ionic Compounds 65<br/>Names and Formulas of Binary Covalent Compounds 70<br/>Molecular Masses from Chemical Formulas 71<br/>Gallery PICTURING MOLECULES 73<br/>2.9 Mixtures: Classification and Separation 74<br/>Tools of the Laboratory BASIC SEPARATION TECHNIQUES 75<br/>Chapter Perspective 77 <br/>For Review and Reference 78 <br/>Problems 79<br/>Stoichiometry: Mole-Mass-Number Relationships in Chemical Systems 86<br/>3.1 The Mole 87<br/>Defining the Mole 87<br/>Molar Mass 89<br/>Interconverting Moles, Mass, and Number of Chemical Entities 90<br/>Mass Percent from the Chemical Formula 93<br/>3.2 Determining the Formula of an Unknown Compound 95<br/>Empirical Formulas 95<br/>Molecular Formulas 96<br/>Combustion Analysis 98<br/>Chemical Formulas and the Structures of Molecules 99<br/>3.3 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations 101<br/>3.4 Calculating Amounts of Reactant and Product 105<br/>Stoichiometrically Equivalent Molar Ratios from the Balanced Equation 106<br/>Chemical Reactions That Occur in a Sequence 108<br/>Chemical Reactions That Involve a Limiting Reactant 110<br/>Chemical Reactions in Practice: Theoretical, Actual, and Percent Yields 112<br/>3.5 Fundamentals of Solution Stoichiometry 114<br/>Expressing Concentration in Terms of Molarity 114<br/>Mole-Mass-Number Conversions Involving Solutions 115<br/>Preparing and Diluting Molar Solutions 116<br/>Stoichiometry of Chemical Reactions in Solution 118<br/>Chapter Perspective 120 <br/>For Review and Reference 120 <br/>Problems 123<br/>The Major Classes of Chemical Reactions 131<br/>4.1 The Role of Water as a Solvent 132<br/>The Solubility of Ionic Compounds 132<br/>The Polar Nature of Water 134<br/>4.2 Writing Equations for Aqueous Ionic Reactions 137<br/>4.3 Precipitation Reactions 138<br/>THE DRIVING FORCE FOR A PRECIPITATION REACTION 138<br/>Predicting Whether a Precipitation Reaction Will Occur 139<br/>4.4 Acid-Base Reactions 140<br/>The Driving Force and Net Change: Formation of H2O from H1 and OH2 141<br/>Acid-Base Titrations 143<br/>Acid-Base Reactions as Proton-Transfer Processes 144<br/>4.5 Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions 146<br/>The Driving Force for Redox Processes 147<br/>Some Essential Redox Terminology 148<br/>Using Oxidation Numbers to Monitor the Movement of Electron Charge 148<br/>Balancing Redox Equations 150<br/>Redox Titrations 152<br/>4.6 Elemental Substances in Redox Reactions 154<br/>4.7 Reversible Reactions: An Introduction to Chemical Equilibrium 162<br/>Chapter Perspective 164 <br/>For Review and Reference 164 <br/>Problems 166<br/>Gases and the Kinetic-Molecular Theory 173<br/>5.1 An Overview of the Physical States of Matter 174<br/>5.2 Gas Pressure and Its Measurement 176<br/>Laboratory Devices for Measuring Gas Pressure 176<br/>Units of Pressure 178<br/>5.3 The Gas Laws and Their Experimental Foundations 180<br/>The Relationship Between Volume and Pressure: Boyle's Law 180<br/>The Relationship Between Volume and Temperature: Charles's Law 181<br/>The Relationship Between Volume and Amount: Avogadro's Law 183<br/>Gas Behavior at Standard Conditions 184<br/>The Ideal Gas Law 185<br/>Solving Gas Law Problems 186<br/>5.4 Further Applications of the Ideal Gas Law 189<br/>The Density of a Gas 189<br/>The Molar Mass of a Gas 191<br/>The Partial Pressure of a Gas in a Mixture of Gases 192<br/>5.5 The Ideal Gas Law and Reaction Stoichiometry 195<br/>5.6 The Kinetic-Molecular Theory: A Model for Gas Behavior 197<br/>How the Kinetic-Molecular Theory Explains the Gas Laws 197<br/>Effusion and Diffusion 201<br/>The Chaotic World of Gases: Mean Free Path and Collision Frequency 203<br/>Chemical Connections Chemistry in Planetary Science: STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION <br/>OF THE EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE 204<br/>5.7 Real Gases: Deviations from Ideal Behavior 207<br/>Effects of Extreme Conditions on Gas Behavior 207<br/>The van der Waals Equation: The Ideal Gas Law Redesigned 209<br/>Chapter Perspective 210 <br/>For Review and Reference 210 <br/>Problems 212<br/>Thermochemistry: Energy Flow and Chemical Change 220<br/>6.1 Forms of Energy and Their Interconversion 221<br/>The System and Its Surroundings 221<br/>Energy Flow to and from a System 222<br/>Heat and Work: Two Forms of Energy Transfer 223<br/>The Law of Energy Conservation 225<br/>UNITS OF ENERGY 225<br/>State Functions and the Path Independence of the Energy Change 226<br/>6.2 Enthalpy: Heats of Reaction and Chemical Change 228<br/>The Meaning of Enthalpy 228<br/>Comparing DE and DH 228<br/>Exothermic and Endothermic Processes 229<br/>Some Important Types of Enthalpy Change 230<br/>Changes in Bond Strengths, or Where Does the Heat of Reaction Come From? 230<br/>6.3 Calorimetry: Laboratory Measurement of Heats of Reaction 233<br/>Specific Heat Capacity 233<br/>The Practice of Calorimetry 234<br/>6.4 Stoichiometry of Thermochemical <br/>Equations 236<br/>6.5 Hess's Law of Heat Summation 238<br/>6.6 Standard Heats of Reaction (DH0rxn) 240<br/>Formation Equations and Their Standard Enthalpy Changes 240<br/>Determining DH0rxn from DH0f Values of Reactants and Products 241<br/>Chemical Connections Chemistry in Environmental Science: <br/>THE FUTURE OF ENERGY USE 243<br/>Chapter Perspective 245 <br/>For Review and Reference 246 <br/>Problems 247<br/>Quantum Theory and Atomic Structure 254<br/>7.1 The Nature of Light 255<br/>The Wave Nature of Light 256<br/>The Particle Nature of Light 260<br/>7.2 Atomic Spectra 262<br/>The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom 263<br/>Limitations of the Bohr Model 264<br/>The Energy States of the Hydrogen Atom 264<br/>Tools of the Laboratory SPECTROPHOTOMETRY IN CHEMICAL ANALYSIS 267<br/>7.3 The Wave-Particle Duality of Matter and Energy 269<br/>The Wave Nature of Electrons and the Particle Nature of Photons 269<br/>The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle 272<br/>7.4 The Quantum-Mechanical Model of the Atom 273<br/>The Atomic Orbital and the Probable Location of the Electron 273<br/>Quantum Numbers of an Atomic Orbital 275<br/>Shapes of Atomic Orbitals 278<br/>Energy Levels of the Hydrogen Atom 281<br/>Chapter Perspective 281 <br/>For Review and Reference 281 <br/>Problems 283<br/>Electron Configuration and Chemical Periodicity 288<br/>8.1 Development of the Periodic Table 289<br/>8.2 Characteristics of Many-Electron Atoms 290<br/>The Electron-Spin Quantum Number 290<br/>The Exclusion Principle 291<br/>Electrostatic Effects and the Splitting of Energy Levels 292<br/>8.3 The Quantum-Mechanical Model and the Periodic Table 295<br/>BUILDING UP PERIODS 1 AND 2 295<br/>Building Up Period 3 298<br/>Electron Configurations Within Groups 299<br/>The First d-Orbital Transition Series: Building Up Period 4 299<br/>General Principles of Electron Configurations 301<br/>Complex Patterns: The Transition and Inner Transition Elements 302<br/>8.4 Trends in Some Key Periodic Atomic Properties 304<br/>Trends in Atomic Size 304<br/>Trends in Ionization Energy 307<br/>Trends in Electron Affinity 310<br/>8.5 The Connection Between Atomic Structure and Chemical Reactivity 311<br/>Trends in Metallic Behavior 311<br/>Properties of Monatomic Ions 314<br/>Chapter Perspective 320 <br/>For Review and Reference 320 <br/>Problems 321<br/>Models of Chemical Bonding 326<br/>9.1 Atomic Properties and Chemical Bonds 327<br/>Types of Chemical Bonding 327<br/>Lewis Electron-Dot Symbols: Depicting Atoms in Chemical Bonding 329<br/>9.2 The Ionic Bonding Model 330<br/>Energy Considerations in Ionic Bonding: The Importance of Lattice Energy 331<br/>Periodic Trends in Lattice Energy 333<br/>How the Model Explains the Properties of Ionic Compounds 335<br/>9.3 The Covalent Bonding Model 337<br/>The Formation of a Covalent Bond 337<br/>The Properties of a Covalent Bond: Bond Energy and Bond Length 338<br/>How the Model Explains the Properties of Covalent Compounds 341<br/>Tools of the Laboratory INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY 343<br/>9.4 Between the Extremes: Electronegativity and Bond Polarity 344<br/>Electronegativity 344<br/>Polar Covalent Bonds and Bond Polarity 346<br/>The Partial Ionic Character of Polar Covalent Bonds 347<br/>The Continuum of Bonding Across a Period 348<br/>9.5 An Introduction to Metallic Bonding 349<br/>The Electron-Sea Model 349<br/>How the Model Explains the Properties of Metals 350<br/>Chapter Perspective 351 <br/>For Review and Reference 352 <br/>Problems 353<br/>The Shapes of Molecules 357<br/>10.1 Depicting Molecules and Ions with Lewis Structures 358<br/>Using the Octet Rule to Write Lewis Structures 358<br/>Resonance: Delocalized Electron-Pair Bonding 362<br/>Formal Charge: Selecting the Best Resonance Structure 364<br/>Lewis Structures for Exceptions to the Octet Rule 365<br/>10.2 Using Lewis Structures and Bond Energies to Calculate <br/>Heats of Reaction 368<br/>10.3 Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) <br/>Theory and Molecular Shape 370<br/>Electron-Group Arrangements and Molecular Shapes 371<br/>THE MOLECULAR SHAPE WITH TWO ELECTRON GROUPS (LINEAR ARRANGEMENT) 372<br/>Molecular Shapes with Three Electron Groups (Trigonal Planar Arrangement) 372<br/>Molecular Shapes with Four Electron Groups (Tetrahedral Arrangement) 373<br/>Molecular Shapes with Five Electron Groups (Trigonal Bipyramidal <br/>Arrangement) 375<br/>Molecular Shapes with Six Electron Groups (Octahedral Arrangement) 376<br/>Using VSEPR Theory to Determine Molecular Shape 377<br/>Molecular Shapes with More Than One Central Atom 378<br/>Gallery Molecular Beauty: ODD SHAPES WITH USEFUL FUNCTIONS 380<br/>10.4 Molecular Shape and Molecular Polarity 381<br/>Bond Polarity, Bond Angle, and Dipole Moment 381<br/>The Effect of Molecular Polarity on Behavior 383<br/>Chapter Perspective 383<br/>Chemical Connections <br/>Chemistry in Sensory Physiology: MOLECULAR SHAPE, BIOLOGICAL RECEPTORS, <br/>AND THE SENSE OF SMELL 384<br/>For Review and Reference 386 <br/>Problems 387<br/>Theories of Covalent Bonding 392<br/>11.1 Valence Bond (VB) Theory and Orbital Hybridization 393<br/>The Central Themes of VB Theory 393<br/>Types of Hybrid Orbitals 394<br/>11.2 The Mode of Orbital Overlap and the Types of Covalent Bonds 400<br/>The VB Treatment of Single and Multiple Bonds 400<br/>Orbital Overlap and Molecular Rotation 403<br/>11.3 Molecular Orbital (MO) Theory and Electron Delocalization 404<br/>The Central Themes of MO Theory 404<br/>Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules of the Period 2 Elements 407<br/>MO Description of Some Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules 412<br/>MO Descriptions of Ozone and Benzene 413<br/>Chapter Perspective 414 <br/>For Review and Reference 414 <br/>Problems 416<br/>Intermolecular Forces: Liquids, Solids, and Phase Changes 419<br/>12.1 An Overview of Physical States and Phase Changes 420<br/>12.2 Quantitative Aspects of Phase Changes 423<br/>Heat Involved in Phase Changes: A Kinetic-Molecular Approach 423<br/>The Equilibrium Nature of Phase Changes 425<br/>Phase Diagrams: The Effect of Pressure and Temperature on Physical State 430<br/>12.3 Types of Intermolecular Forces 431<br/>Ion-Dipole Forces 432<br/>Dipole-Dipole Forces 432<br/>The Hydrogen Bond 434<br/>Polarizability and Charge-Induced Dipole Forces 436<br/>Dispersion (London) Forces 436<br/>12.4 Properties of the Liquid State 439<br/>Surface Tension 439<br/>Capillarity 439<br/>Viscosity 440<br/>Gallery PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS 441<br/>12.5 The Uniqueness of Water 442<br/>SOLVENT PROPERTIES OF WATER 442<br/>Thermal Properties of Water 442<br/>Surface Properties of Water 443<br/>The Density of Solid and Liquid Water 443<br/>12.6 The Solid State: Structure, Properties, and Bonding 445<br/>Structural Features of Solids 445<br/>Tools of the Laboratory <br/>X-RAY DIFFRACTION ANALYSIS AND SCANNING TUNNELING MICROSCOPY 451<br/>Types and Properties of Crystalline Solids 452<br/>Amorphous Solids 456<br/>Bonding in Solids: Molecular Orbital Band Theory 456<br/>12.7 Advanced Materials 460<br/>Electronic Materials 460<br/>Liquid Crystals 462<br/>Ceramic Materials 465<br/>Polymeric Materials 468<br/>Nanotechnology: Designing Materials Atom by Atom 473<br/>Chapter Perspective 475 <br/>For Review and Reference 476 <br/>Problems 477<br/>The Properties of Mixtures: Solutions and Colloids 484<br/>13.1 Types of Solutions: Intermolecular Forces and Predicting Solubility 486<br/>Intermolecular Forces in Solution 486<br/>Liquid Solutions and the Role of Molecular Polarity 487<br/>Chemical Connections <br/>Chemistry in Pharmacology: THE MODE OF ACTION OF SOAPS AND ANTIBIOTICS 490<br/>Gas Solutions and Solid Solutions 492<br/>13.2 Energy Changes in the Solution Process 493<br/>Heats of Solution and Solution Cycles 493<br/>Heats of Hydration: Ionic Solids in Water 494<br/>The Solution Process and the Tendency Toward Disorder 496<br/>13.3 Solubility as an Equilibrium Process 497<br/>Effect of Temperature on Solubility 498<br/>Effect of Pressure on Solubility 500<br/>13.4 Quantitative Ways of Expressing Concentration 501<br/>Molarity and Molality 501<br/>Parts of Solute by Parts of Solution 502<br/>Converting Units of Concentration 504<br/>13.5 Colligative Properties of Solutions 506<br/>Colligative Properties of Nonvolatile Nonelectrolyte Solutions 506<br/>Gallery COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES IN INDUSTRY AND BIOLOGY 512<br/>Using Colligative Properties to Find Solute Molar Mass 514<br/>Colligative Properties of Volatile Nonelectrolyte Solutions 515<br/>Colligative Properties of Electrolyte Solutions 516<br/>13.6 The Structure and Properties of Colloids 517<br/>Chapter Perspective 519<br/>Chemical Connections <br/>Chemistry in Sanitary Engineering: SOLUTIONS AND COLLOIDS IN WATER <br/>PURIFICATION 520<br/>For Review and Reference 522 <br/>Problems 524<br/>A Perspective on the Properties of the Elements 531<br/>Topic 1 The Key Atomic Properties 532<br/>Topic 2 Characteristics of Chemical Bonding 534<br/>Topic 3 Metallic Behavior 536<br/>Topic 4 Acid-Base Behavior of the Element Oxides 537<br/>Topic 5 Redox Behavior of the Elements 538<br/>Topic 6 Physical States and Phase Changes 540<br/>Periodic Patterns in the Main-Group Elements: Bonding, Structure, <br/>and Reactivity 542<br/>14.1 Hydrogen, the Simplest Atom 543<br/>Where Does Hydrogen Fit in the Periodic Table? 543<br/>Highlights of Hydrogen Chemistry 544<br/>14.2 Trends Across the Periodic Table: The Period 2 Elements 545<br/>14.3 Group 1A(1): The Alkali Metals 548<br/>Why Are the Alkali Metals Soft, Low Melting, and Lightweight? 548<br/>Why Are the Alkali Metals So Reactive? 548<br/>The Anomalous Behavior of Lithium 549<br/>14.4 Group 2A(2): The Alkaline Earth Metals 552<br/>How Do the Physical Properties of the Alkaline Earth and Alkali <br/>Metals Compare? 552<br/>How Do the Chemical Properties of the Alkaline Earth and Alkali <br/>Metals Compare? 552<br/>The Anomalous Behavior of Beryllium 553<br/>Diagonal Relationships: Lithium and Magnesium 553<br/>Looking Backward and Forward: Groups 1A(1), 2A(2), and 3A(13) 553<br/>14.5 Group 3A(13): The Boron Family 556<br/>How Do the Transition Elements Influence Group 3A(13) Properties? 556<br/>What New Features Appear in the Chemical Properties of Group 3A(13)? 556<br/>Highlights of Boron Chemistry 560<br/>Diagonal Relationships: Beryllium and Aluminum 562<br/>14.6 Group 4A(14): The Carbon Family 562<br/>How Does the Bonding in an Element Affect Physical Properties? 562<br/>How Does the Type of Bonding Change in Group 4A(14) Compounds? 566<br/>Highlights of Carbon Chemistry 566<br/>Highlights of Silicon Chemistry 568<br/>Diagonal Relationships: Boron and Silicon 569<br/>Looking Backward and Forward: Groups 3A(13), 4A(14), and 5A(15) 569<br/>Gallery SILICATE MINERALS AND SILICONE POLYMERS 570<br/>14.7 Group 5A(15): The Nitrogen Family 573<br/>What Accounts for the Wide Range of Physical Behavior in Group 5A(15)? 573<br/>What Patterns Appear in the Chemical Behavior of Group 5A(15)? 576<br/>Highlights of Nitrogen Chemistry 577<br/>Highlights of Phosphorus Chemistry: Oxides and Oxoacids 580<br/>14.8 Group 6A(16): The Oxygen Family 581<br/>How Do the Oxygen and Nitrogen Families Compare Physically? 581<br/>How Do the Oxygen and Nitrogen Families Compare Chemically? 584<br/>Highlights of Oxygen Chemistry: Range of Oxide Properties 586<br/>Highlights of Sulfur Chemistry: Oxides, Oxoacids, and Sulfides 586<br/>Looking Backward and Forward: Groups 5A(15), 6A(16), and 7A(17) 588<br/>14.9 Group 7A(17): The Halogens 588<br/>What Accounts for the Regular Changes in the Halogens' Physical Properties? 588<br/>Why Are the Halogens So Reactive? 588<br/>Highlights of Halogen Chemistry 592<br/>14.10 Group 8A(18): The Noble Gases 595<br/>How Can Noble Gases Form Compounds? 595<br/>Looking Backward and Forward: Groups 7A(17), 8A(18), and 1A(1) 595<br/>Chapter Perspective 597 <br/>For Review and Reference 597 <br/>Problems 598<br/>Organic Compounds and the Atomic Properties of Carbon 606<br/>15.1 The Special Nature of Carbon and the Characteristics <br/>of Organic Molecules 607<br/>The Structural Complexity of Organic Molecules 608<br/>The Chemical Diversity of Organic Molecules 608<br/>15.2 The Structures and Classes of Hydrocarbons 610<br/>Carbon Skeletons and Hydrogen Skins 610<br/>Alkanes: Hydrocarbons with Only Single Bonds 613<br/>Constitutional Isomerism and the Physical Properties of Alkanes 615<br/>Chiral Molecules and Optical Isomerism 617<br/>Alkenes: Hydrocarbons with Double Bonds 618<br/>Chemical Connections <br/>Chemistry in Sensory Physiology: GEOMETRIC ISOMERS AND THE CHEMISTRY <br/>OF VISION 620<br/>Alkynes: Hydrocarbons with Triple Bonds 621<br/>Aromatic Hydrocarbons: Cyclic Molecules with Delocalized a Electrons 622<br/>Variations on a Theme: Catenated Inorganic Hydrides 623<br/>Tools of the Laboratory NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE (NMR) SPECTROSCOPY 624<br/>15.3 Some Important Classes of Organic Reactions 624<br/>Types of Organic Reactions 624<br/>The Redox Process in Organic Reactions 627<br/>15.4 Properties and Reactivities of Common Functional Groups 627<br/>Functional Groups with Single Bonds 628<br/>Functional Groups with Double Bonds 633<br/>Functional Groups with Both Single and <br/>Double Bonds 635<br/>Functional Groups with Triple Bonds 640<br/>15.5 The Monomer-Polymer Theme I: Synthetic Macromolecules 641<br/>Addition Polymers 642<br/>Condensation Polymers 643<br/>15.6 The Monomer-Polymer Theme II: Biological Macromolecules 644<br/>Sugars and Polysaccharides 644<br/>Amino Acids and Proteins 646<br/>Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids 650<br/>Chapter Perspective 654 <br/>For Review and Reference 654 <br/>Problems 656<br/>Kinetics: Rates and Mechanisms of Chemical Reactions 663<br/>16.1 Factors That Influence Reaction Rate 665<br/>16.2 Expressing the Reaction Rate 667<br/>Average, Instantaneous, and Initial Reaction Rates 668<br/>Expressing Rate in Terms of Reactant and Product Concentrations 669<br/>16.3 The Rate Law and Its Components 671<br/>Tools of the Laboratory MEASURING REACTION RATES 672<br/>Determining the Initial Rate 672<br/>REACTION ORDER TERMINOLOGY 672<br/>Determining Reaction Orders 675<br/>Determining the Rate Constant 677<br/>16.4 Integrated Rate Laws: Concentration Changes over Time 677<br/>Integrated Rate Laws for First-, Second-, and Zero-Order Reactions 677<br/>Determining the Reaction Order from the Integrated Rate Law 679<br/>Reaction Half-Life 680<br/>16.5 The Effect of Temperature on Reaction Rate 682<br/>16.6 Explaining the Effects of Concentration and Temperature 685<br/>Collision Theory: Basis of the Rate Law 685<br/>Transition State Theory: Molecular Nature of the Activated State 688<br/>16.7 Reaction Mechanisms: Steps in the Overall Reaction 691<br/>Elementary Reactions and Molecularity 692<br/>The Rate-Determining Step of a Reaction Mechanism 693<br/>Correlating the Mechanism with the Rate Law 694<br/>16.8 Catalysis: Speeding Up a Chemical Reaction 697<br/>Homogeneous Catalysis 698<br/>Heterogeneous Catalysis 699<br/>Chemical Connections <br/>Chemistry in Enzymology: KINETICS AND FUNCTION OF BIOLOGICAL CATALYSTS 700<br/>Chemical Connections <br/>Chemistry in Atmospheric Science: DEPLETION OF THE EARTH'S OZONE LAYER 702<br/>Chapter Perspective 703 <br/>For Review and Reference 703 <br/>Problems 705<br/>Equilibrium: The Extent of Chemical Reactions 713<br/>17.1 The Dynamic Nature of the Equilibrium State 714<br/>17.2 The Reaction Quotient and the Equilibrium Constant 717<br/>Writing the Reaction Quotient 718<br/>Variations in the Form of the Reaction Quotient 719<br/>17.3 Expressing Equilibria with Pressure Terms: Relation Between Kc and Kp 724<br/>17.4 Reaction Direction: Comparing Q and K 725<br/>17.5 How to Solve Equilibrium Problems 727<br/>Using Quantities to Determine the Equilibrium Constant 727<br/>Using the Equilibrium Constant to Determine Quantities 730<br/>17.6 Reaction Conditions and the Equilibrium State: <br/>Le ChYtelier's Principle 736<br/>The Effect of a Change in Concentration 737<br/>The Effect of a Change in Pressure (Volume) 739<br/>The Effect of a Change in Temperature 741<br/>The Lack of Effect of a Catalyst 743<br/>Chemical Connections <br/>Chemistry in Industrial Production: THE HABER PROCESS FOR <br/>THE SYNTHESIS OF AMMONIA 744<br/>Chemical Connections <br/>Chemistry in Cellular Metabolism: DESIGN AND CONTROL OF A METABOLIC PATHWAY 745<br/>Chapter Perspective 747 <br/>For Review and Reference 747 <br/>Problems 749<br/>Acid-Base Equilibria 756<br/>18.1 Acids and Bases in Water 758<br/>Proton or Hydroxide Ion Release and the Classical Acid-Base Definition 759<br/>Variation in Acid Strength: The Acid-Dissociation Constant (Ka) 759<br/>Classifying the Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases 762<br/>18.2 Autoionization of Water and the pH Scale 764<br/>THE EQUILIBRIUM NATURE OF AUTOIONIZATION: THE <br/>ION-PRODUCT CONSTANT FOR WATER (KW) 764<br/>Expressing the Hydronium Ion Concentration: The pH Scale 765<br/>18.3 Proton Transfer and the Bronsted-Lowry Acid-Base Definition 768<br/>The Conjugate Acid-Base Pair 769<br/>Relative Acid-Base Strength and the Net Direction of Reaction 770<br/>18.4 Solving Problems Involving Weak-Acid Equilibria 772<br/>Finding Ka Given Concentrations 773 <br/>Finding Concentrations Given Ka 775<br/>The Effect of Concentration on the Extent of Acid Dissociation 776<br/>The Behavior of Polyprotic Acids 776<br/>18.5 Weak Bases and Their Relation to Weak Acids 779<br/>Molecules as Weak Bases: Ammonia and the Amines 779<br/>Anions of Weak Acids as Weak Bases 782<br/>The Relation Between Ka and Kb of a Conjugate Acid-Base Pair 782<br/>18.6 Molecular Properties and Acid Strength 784<br/>Trends in Acid Strength of Nonmetal Hydrides 784<br/>Trends in Acid Strength of Oxoacids 785<br/>Acidity of Hydrated Metal Ions 786<br/>18.7 Acid-Base Properties of Salt Solutions 787<br/>Salts That Yield Neutral Solutions 787<br/>Salts That Yield Acidic Solutions 787<br/>Salts That Yield Basic Solutions 788<br/>Salts of Weakly Acidic Cations and Weakly Basic Anions 789<br/>18.8 Generalizing the Bronsted-Lowry Concept: The Leveling Effect 790<br/>18.9 Electron-Pair Donation and the Lewis Acid-Base Definition 791<br/>Molecules as Lewis Acids 792<br/>Metal Cations as Lewis Acids 793<br/>An Overview of Acid-Base Definitions 794<br/>Chapter Perspective 795 <br/>For Review and Reference 795 <br/>Problems 797<br/>Ionic Equilibria in Aqueous Systems 805<br/>19.1 Equilibria of Acid-Base Buffer Systems 806<br/>How a Buffer Works: The Common-Ion Effect 806<br/>The Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation 811<br/>Buffer Capacity and Buffer Range 812<br/>Preparing a Buffer 813<br/>19.2 Acid-Base Titration Curves 815<br/>Monitoring pH with Acid-Base Indicators 815<br/>Strong Acid-Strong Base Titration Curves 816<br/>Weak Acid-Strong Base Titration Curves 818<br/>Weak Base-Strong Acid Titration Curves 821<br/>Titration Curves for Polyprotic Acids 822<br/>Amino Acids as Biological Polyprotic Acids 823<br/>19.3 Equilibria of Slightly Soluble Ionic Compounds 824<br/>The Ion-Product Expression (Qsp) and the Solubility-Product Constant (Ksp) 824<br/>Calculations Involving the Solubility-Product Constant 826<br/>The Effect of a Common Ion on Solubility 828<br/>The Effect of pH on Solubility 829<br/>Predicting the Formation of a Precipitate: Qsp vs. Ksp 830<br/>Chemical Connections <br/>Chemistry in Geology: CREATION OF A LIMESTONE CAVE 831<br/>Chemical Connections <br/>Chemistry in Environmental Science: THE ACID-RAIN PROBLEM 833<br/>19.4 Equilibria Involving Complex Ions 835<br/>Formation of Complex Ions 835<br/>Complex Ions and the Solubility of Precipitates 837<br/>Complex Ions of Amphoteric Hydroxides 838<br/>19.5 Application of Ionic Equilibria to Chemical Analysis 840<br/>Selective Precipitation 840<br/>Qualitative Analysis: Identifying Ions in Complex Mixtures 841<br/>Chapter Perspective 846 <br/>For Review and Reference 846 <br/>Problems 848<br/>Thermodynamics: Entropy, Free Energy, and the Direction of Chemical <br/>Reactions 855<br/>20.1 The Second Law of Thermodynamics: Predicting Spontaneous Change 856<br/>Limitations of the First Law of Thermodynamics 857<br/>The Sign of DH Cannot Predict Spontaneous Change 858<br/>Disorder and Entropy 859<br/>Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics 861<br/>Standard Molar Entropies and the Third Law 861<br/>20.2 Calculating the Change in Entropy of a Reaction 866<br/>Entropy Changes in the System: The Standard Entropy of Reaction (DSorxn) 866<br/>Entropy Changes in the Surroundings: The Other Part of the Total 867<br/>Chemical Connections Chemistry in Biology: DO LIVING THINGS OBEY THE LAWS <br/>OF THERMODYNAMICS? 869<br/>The Entropy Change and the Equilibrium State 870<br/>Spontaneous Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions: A Summary 870<br/>20.3 Entropy, Free Energy, and Work 872<br/>Free Energy Change and Reaction Spontaneity 872<br/>Calculating Standard Free Energy Changes 873<br/>DG and the Work a System Can Do 874<br/>The Effect of Temperature on Reaction Spontaneity 876<br/>Coupling of Reactions to Drive a Nonspontaneous Change 878<br/>Chemical Connections <br/>Chemistry in Biological Energetics: THE UNIVERSAL ROLE OF ATP 879<br/>20.4 Free Energy, Equilibrium, and Reaction Direction 880<br/>Chapter Perspective 884 <br/>For Review and Reference 884 <br/>Problems 886<br/>Electrochemistry: Chemical Change and Electrical Work 892<br/>21.1 Half-Reactions and Electrochemical Cells 893<br/>A Quick Review of Oxidation-Reduction Concepts 893<br/>Half-Reaction Method for Balancing Redox <br/>Reactions 894<br/>An Overview of Electrochemical Cells 898<br/>21.2 Voltaic Cells: Using Spontaneous Reactions to Generate Electrical <br/>Energy 900<br/>Construction and Operation of a Voltaic Cell 900<br/>Notation for a Voltaic Cell 903<br/>Why Does a Voltaic Cell Work? 904<br/>21.3 Cell Potential: Output of a Voltaic Cell 905<br/>Standard Cell Potentials 906<br/>Relative Strengths of Oxidizing and Reducing Agents 908<br/>21.4 Free Energy and Electrical Work 914<br/>STANDARD CELL POTENTIAL AND THE EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT 914<br/>The Effect of Concentration on Cell Potential 916<br/>Cell Potential and the Relation Between Q and K 918<br/>Concentration Cells 919<br/>21.5 Electrochemical Processes in Batteries 922<br/>Gallery BATTERIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 923<br/>21.6 Corrosion: A Case of Environmental Electrochemistry 926<br/>The Corrosion of Iron 926<br/>Protecting Against the Corrosion of Iron 927<br/>21.7 Electrolytic Cells: Using Electrical Energy to Drive a Nonspontaneous <br/>Reaction 929<br/>Construction and Operation of an Electrolytic Cell 929<br/>Predicting the Products of Electrolysis 931<br/>The Stoichiometry of Electrolysis: The Relation Between Amounts of Charge<br/>and Product 935<br/>Chemical Connections <br/>Chemistry in Biological Energetics: CELLULAR ELECTROCHEMISTRY AND THE <br/>PRODUCTION OF ATP 937<br/>Chapter Perspective 939 <br/>For Review and Reference 939 <br/>Problems 942<br/>The Elements in Nature and Industry 950<br/>22.1 How the Elements Occur in Nature 951<br/>Earth's Structure and the Abundance of the Elements 951<br/>Sources of the Elements 955<br/>22.2 The Cycling of Elements Through the Environment 956<br/>The Carbon Cycle 956<br/>The Nitrogen Cycle 958<br/>The Phosphorus Cycle 960<br/>22.3 Metallurgy: Extracting a Metal from Its Ore 963<br/>Pretreating the Ore 963<br/>Converting Mineral to Element 964<br/>Refining and Alloying the Element 967<br/>22.4 Tapping the Crust: Isolation and Uses of the Elements 968<br/>Producing the Alkali Metals: Sodium and Potassium 968<br/>The Indispensable Three: Iron, Copper, and Aluminum 970<br/>Mining the Sea: Magnesium and Bromine 977<br/>The Many Sources and Uses of Hydrogen 978<br/>A Group at a Glance: Sources, Isolation, and Uses of the Elements 981<br/>22.5 Chemical Manufacturing: Two Case Studies 987<br/>Sulfuric Acid, the Most Important Chemical 987<br/>The Chlor-Alkali Process 990<br/>Chapter Perspective 991 <br/>For Review and Reference 992 <br/>Problems 993<br/>The Transition Elements and Their Coordination Compounds 998<br/>23.1 Properties of the Transition Elements 1000<br/>Electron Configurations of the Transition Metals and Their Ions 1000<br/>Atomic and Physical Properties of the Transition Elements 1002<br/>Chemical Properties of the Transition Metals 1003<br/>23.2 The Inner Transition Elements 1006<br/>THE LANTHANIDES 1006<br/>The Actinides 1007<br/>23.3 Highlights of Selected Transition Metals 1008<br/>Chromium 1008<br/>Manganese 1009<br/>Silver 1010<br/>Mercury 1012<br/>23.4 Coordination Compounds 1013<br/>Structures of Complex Ions: Coordination Numbers, Geometries, and Ligands 1014<br/>Formulas and Names of Coordination Compounds 1016<br/>A Historical Perspective: Alfred Werner and Coordination Theory 1018<br/>Isomerism in Coordination Compounds 1020<br/>23.5 Theoretical Basis for the Bonding and Properties of Complexes 1023<br/>Application of Valence Bond Theory to Complex Ions 1023<br/>Crystal Field Theory 1025<br/>Chapter Perspective 1031<br/>Chemical Connections <br/>Chemistry in Nutritional Science: TRANSITION METALS AS ESSENTIAL DIETARY TRACE <br/>ELEMENTS 1032<br/>For Review and Reference 1034 <br/>Problems 1035<br/>Nuclear Reactions and Their Applications 1040<br/>24.1 Radioactive Decay and Nuclear Stability 1042<br/>The Components of the Nucleus: Terms and Notation 1042<br/>The Discovery of Radioactivity and the Types of Emissions 1042<br/>Types of Radioactive Decay; Balancing Nuclear Equations 1044<br/>Nuclear Stability and the Mode of Decay 1046<br/>24.2 The Kinetics of Radioactive Decay 1050<br/>The Rate of Radioactive Decay 1050<br/>Tools of the Laboratory COUNTERS FOR THE DETECTION OF RADIOACTIVE EMISSIONS 1051<br/>Radioisotopic Dating 1053<br/>24.3 Nuclear Transmutation: Induced Changes in Nuclei 1055<br/>Early Transmutation Experiments; Discovery of the Neutron 1055<br/>Particle Accelerators and the Transuranium Elements 1056<br/>24.4 The Effects of Nuclear Radiation on Matter 1058<br/>The Effects of Radioactive Emissions: Excitation and Ionization 1058<br/>Effects of Ionizing Radiation on Living Matter 1058<br/>24.5 Applications of Radioisotopes 1062<br/>Radioactive Tracers: Applications of Nonionizing Radiation 1062<br/>Applications of Ionizing Radiation 1065<br/>24.6 The Interconversion of Mass and Energy 1066<br/>The Mass Defect 1066<br/>Nuclear Binding Energy 1067<br/>24.7 Applications of Fission and Fusion 1069<br/>The Process of Nuclear Fission 1069<br/>THE PROMISE OF NUCLEAR FUSION 1073<br/>Chemical Connections <br/>Chemistry in Cosmology: ORIGIN OF THE ELEMENTS IN THE STARS 1074<br/>Chapter Perspective 1076 <br/>For Review and Reference 1077 <br/>Problems 1079<br/>Appendix A Common Mathematical Operations in Chemistry A-1<br/> Manipulating Logarithms A-1<br/> Using Exponential (Scientific) Notation A-2<br/> Solving Quadratic Equations A-3<br/> Graphing Data in the Form of a Straight Line A-4<br/>Appendix B Standard Thermodynamic Values for Selected Substances at 298 K A-5<br/>Appendix C Solubility-Product Constants (Ksp) of Slightly Soluble Ionic <br/>Compounds at 298 K A-8<br/>Appendix D Standard Electrode (Half-Cell) Potentials at 298 K A-9<br/>Appendix E Answers to Selected Problems A-10<br/>Glossary G-1<br/>Credits C-1<br/>Index I-1<br/>SUMMARY LIST OF SPECIAL FEATURES<br/>Chemical Connections<br/>Chemistry Problem Solving in the Real World 32<br/>Chemistry in Planetary Science: Structure and Composition of the Earth's <br/>Atmosphere 204<br/>Chemistry in Environmental Science: The Future of Energy Use 243<br/>Chemistry in Sensory Physiology: Molecular Shape, Biological Receptors, and the <br/>Sense of Smell 384<br/>Chemistry in Pharmacology: The Mode of Action of Soaps and Antibiotics 490<br/>Chemistry in Sanitary Engineering: Solutions and Colloids in Water <br/>Purification 520<br/>Chemistry in Sensory Physiology: Geometric Isomers and the Chemistry of <br/>Vision 620<br/>Chemistry in Enzymology: Kinetics and Function of Biological Catalysts 700<br/>Chemistry in Atmospheric Science: Depletion of the Earth's Ozone Layer 702<br/>Chemistry in Industrial Production: The Haber Process for the Synthesis of <br/>Ammonia 744<br/>Chemistry in Cellular Metabolism: Design and Control of a Metabolic Pathway 745<br/>Chemistry in Geology: Creation of a Limestone Cave 831<br/>Chemistry in Environmental Science: The Acid-Rain Problem 833<br/>Chemistry in Biology: Do Living Things Obey the Laws of Thermodynamics? 869<br/>Chemistry in Biological Energetics: The Universal Role of ATP 879<br/>Chemistry in Biological Energetics: Cellular Electrochemistry and the Production <br/>of ATP 937<br/>Chemistry in Nutritional Science: Transition Metals as Essential Dietary Trace <br/>Elements 1032<br/>Chemistry in Cosmology: Origins of the Elements in the Stars 1074<br/>Tools of the Laboratory Mass Spectrometry 54<br/>Basic Separation Techniques 75<br/>Spectrophotometry in Chemical Analysis 267<br/>Infrared Spectroscopy 343<br/>X-Ray Diffraction Analysis and Scanning Tunneling Microscopy 451<br/>Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy 624<br/>Measuring Reaction Rates 672<br/>Counters for the Detection of Radioactive Emissions 1051<br/>Galleries Picturing Molecules 73<br/>Molecular Beauty: Odd Shapes with Useful Functions 380<br/>Properties of Liquids 441<br/>Colligative Properties in Industry and Biology 512<br/>Silicate Minerals and Silicone Polymers 570<br/>Batteries and Their Applications 923<br/>Animations and Other Media<br/>This icon in the margin indicates a related media presentation at <br/>www.mhhe.com/silberberg4.<br/>Chapter 1<br/>The three states of matter 4 <br/>Chapter 2<br/>Rutherford's experiment 51<br/>Formation of an ionic compound 60<br/>Chapter 3<br/>Limiting reactant 111<br/>Making a solution 116<br/>Chapter 4<br/>Dissolution of an ionic compound and a covalent compound 135<br/>Precipitation reactions 139<br/>Chapter 5<br/>Properties of gases 184<br/>Chapter 6<br/>Energy flow 229<br/>Chapter 7<br/>Emission spectra 264<br/>Atomic line specta 281 <br/>Chapter 8<br/>Isoelectronic series 319<br/>Chapter 9<br/>Formation of an ionic compound 328 <br/>Formation of a covalent bond 341 <br/>Ionic vs. covalent bonding 346<br/>Chapter 10<br/>VSEPR theory and the shapes of molecules 376<br/>VSEPR 376<br/>Influence of shape on polarity 382 <br/>Polarity of molecules 382<br/>Chapter 11<br/>Molecular shapes and orbital hybridization 398<br/>Chapter 12<br/>Vapor pressure 426 <br/>Phase diagrams and the states of matter 431<br/>Cubic unit cells and their origins 454 <br/>Chapter 17<br/>Le ChYtelier's principle 741<br/>Chapter 18<br/>Dissociation of strong and weak acids 761<br/>Chapter 19<br/>Acid-base titration 818<br/>Chapter 21<br/>Galvanic cell 903<br/>Operation of a voltaic cell 903 <br/>Chapter 22<br/>Thermite reaction 966<br/>Iron smelting 971<br/>Aluminum production 975<br/>Chapter 23<br/>Vanadium reduction 1004<br/>Chapter 24<br/>Radioactive decay 1043<br/>Half-life 1053<br/>Nuclear power 1073<br/>Margin Notes<br/>This icon in the text indicates a related application, study aid, or historical <br/>note appearing in the margin.<br/>Chapter 1<br/>The Incredible Range of Physical Change 5<br/>Scientific Thinker Extraordinaire [Lavoisier] 10<br/>A Great Chemist Yet Strict Phlogistonist [Priestley] 11<br/>Everyday Scientific Thinking 13<br/>How Many Barleycorns from His Majesty's Nose to His Thumb? [Inexact units] 17<br/>How Long Is a Meter? 19<br/>Don't Drop That Kilogram! 21<br/>Central Importance of Measurement in Science [Lord Kelvin] 27<br/>Chapter 2<br/>Immeasurable Changes in Mass 44<br/>Dalton's Revival of Atomism 46<br/>Atoms? Humbug! [Famous skeptics] 47<br/>Familiar Glow of Colliding Particles [Signs, aurora, and TV] 48<br/>The "Big Three" Subatomic Particles 51<br/>Naming an Element 52<br/>The Heresy of Radioactive "Transmutation" 56<br/>Chapter 3<br/>Imagine a Mole of . . . [Amazing comparisons] 87<br/>A Rose by Any Other Name [Natural product formulas] 95<br/>Limiting Reactants in Everyday Life 111<br/>Chapter 4<br/>Solid Solvents for Ions 135<br/>Displacement Reactions Inside You [Protein metabolism] 142<br/>Space-Age Combustion Without a Flame [Fuel cells] 160<br/>Chapter 5<br/>Atmosphere-Biosphere Redox Interconnections 174<br/>POW! P-s-s-s-t! POP! [Familiar effects of gas behavior] 175<br/>Snowshoes and the Meaning of Pressure 176<br/>The Mystery of the Suction Pump 177<br/>Breathing and the Gas Laws 184<br/>Gas Density and Human Disasters 189<br/>Up, Up, and Away! [Hot-air balloons] 190<br/>Preparing Nuclear Fuel 202<br/>Danger on Molecular Highways [Molecular motion] 203<br/>Chapter 6<br/>Wherever You Look There Is a System 221<br/>Thermodynamics in the Kitchen 223<br/>The Tragic Life of the First Law's Discoverer [von Mayer] 225<br/>Your Personal Financial State Function [Checkbook analogy] 227<br/>Imagine an Earth Without Water [Specific heat capacity] 236<br/>Chapter 7<br/>Hooray for the Human Mind [Major events around 1900] 255<br/>Electromagnetic Emissions Everywhere 257<br/>Rainbows and Diamonds 259<br/>Ping-Pong Photons [Analogy for photoelectric effect] 261<br/>What Are Stars Made Of? 266<br/>"He'll Never Make a Success of Anything" [Einstein] 269<br/>The Electron Microscope 270<br/>Uncertainty Is Unacceptable? [Famous skeptics] 273<br/>A Radial Probability Distribution of Apples 275<br/>Chapter 8<br/>Mendeleev's Great Contribution 289<br/>Moseley and Atomic Number 290<br/>Baseball Quantum Numbers [Analogy with stadium seat] 291<br/>Periodic Memory Aids 302<br/>Packing 'Em In [Nuclear charge and atomic size] 306<br/>Chapter 9<br/>The Remarkable Insights of G. N. Lewis 330<br/>The Amazing Malleability of Gold 351<br/>Chapter 10<br/>A Purple Mule, Not a Blue Horse and a Red Donkey [Resonance hybrid] 362<br/>Deadly Free-Radical Activity 365<br/>Chapter 12<br/>Environmental Flow [Solid, liquid, and gas flow] 421<br/>Frozen Gold 421<br/>Cooling Phase Change [Sweating and panting] 422<br/>Cooking Under Low or High Pressure 429<br/>The Remarkable Behavior of a Supercritical Fluid (SCF) 431<br/>A Diamond Film on Every Pot 456<br/>Solar Cells 460<br/>One Strand or Many Pieces? 468<br/>Chapter 13<br/>Waxes for Home and Auto 493<br/>Hot Packs, Cold Packs, and Self-Heating Soup 496<br/>A Saturated Solution Is Like a Pure Liquid and Its Vapor 498<br/>Scuba Diving and Soda Pop 500<br/>Unhealthy Ultralow Concentrations [Pollutants] 503<br/>"Soaps" in Your Small Intestine [Bile salts] 518<br/>From Colloid to Civilization [River deltas] 519<br/>Chapter 14<br/>Fill 'Er Up with Hydrogen? Not Likely 545<br/>Versatile Magnesium 552<br/>Lime: The Most Useful Metal Oxide 552<br/>Gallium Arsenide: The Next Wave of Semiconductors 556<br/>Borates in Your Labware 560<br/>CFCs: The Good, the Bad, and the Strong 567<br/>Hydrazine, Nitrogen's Other Hydride 576<br/>Nitric Oxide: A Biochemical Surprise 578<br/>The Countless Uses of Phosphates 580<br/>Match Heads, Bug Sprays, and O-Rings 581<br/>Selenium and Xerography 584<br/>Hydrogen Peroxide: Hydrazine's Cousin 585<br/>Acid from the Sky 586<br/>HF: Unusual Structure, Familiar Uses 592<br/>Pyrotechnic Perchlorates 594<br/>Chapter 15<br/>"Organic Chemistry Is Enough to Drive One Mad" [Wohler] 607<br/>Chiral Medicines 618<br/>Aromatic Carcinogens 623<br/>Pollutants in the Food Chain [PCBs and DDT] 630<br/>A Pungent, Pleasant Banquet [Carboxylic acids and esters] 638<br/>Polysaccharide Skeletons of Lobsters and Roaches 645<br/>Chapter 16<br/>The Significance of R [Dimensional analysis] 683<br/>Sleeping Through the Rate-Determining Step 693<br/>Catalytically Cleaning Your Car's Exhaust 699<br/>Chapter 17<br/>The Universality of Le ChYtelier's Principle 737<br/>Temperature-Dependent Systems [Similar math expressions] 743<br/>Catalyzed Perpetual Motion? 743<br/>Chapter 18<br/>Pioneers of Acid-Base Chemistry 757<br/>Logarithmic Scales in Sound and Seismology 765<br/>Ammonia's Picturesque Past 779<br/>Chapter 20<br/>Vital Orderly Information [DNA and gene repair] 859<br/>Poker and Probability 860<br/>A Checkbook Analogy for Heating the Surroundings 867<br/>Greatness and Obscurity of J. Willard Gibbs 872<br/>The Wide Range of Energy Efficiency 875<br/>Chapter 21<br/>The Electrochemical Future Is Here 893<br/>Which Half-Reaction Occurs at Which Electrode? 898<br/>Electron Flow and Water Flow 904<br/>The Pain of a Dental Voltaic Cell 913<br/>Walther Hermann Nernst (1864-1941) 917<br/>Concentration Cells in Your Nerve Cells 920<br/>Minimicroanalysis 922<br/>Father of Electrochemistry and Much More [Michael Faraday] 935<br/>Chapter 22<br/>Phosphorus from Outer Space [Meteorite sources] 960<br/>Phosphorus Nerve Poisons 962<br/>Panning and Fleecing for Gold 964<br/>A Plentiful Oceanic Supply of NaCl 969<br/>Was It Slag That Made the Great Ship Go Down? [Titanic] 971<br/>The Dawns of Three New Ages [Copper, bronze, and brass] 972<br/>Energy Received and Returned [Aluminum batteries] 975<br/>Chapter 23<br/>A Remarkable Laboratory Feat [Isolating lanthanides] 1006<br/>Sharing the Ocean's Wealth [Manganese nodules] 1010<br/>Mad as a Hatter [Mercury poisoning] 1013<br/>Grabbing Ions [Chelates] 1016<br/>Anticancer Geometric Isomers 1021<br/>Chapter 24<br/>The Remarkably Tiny, Massive Nucleus 1042<br/>Her Brilliant Career [Marie Curie] 1043<br/>The Little Neutral One [Neutrinos] 1045<br/>The Case of the Shroud of Turin 1054<br/>How Old Is the Solar System? 1055<br/>The Powerful Bevatron 1057<br/>Naming Transuranium Elements 1058<br/>A Tragic Way to Tell Time in the Dark [Painting watch dials] 1059<br/>The Risk of Radon 1061<br/>Modeling Radiation Risk 1062<br/>The Force That Binds Us [Strong force] 1067<br/>Lise Meitner (1878-1968) 1069<br/>"Breeding" Nuclear Fuel 1073 |